On December 12, 2015, delegates from nearly every country in the world stepped into the streets of Paris, France, with a new sense of hope. After decades of discussion, the governments of most of the world had agreed on a set of international climate goals. These goals are laid out in the Paris Climate Agreement, the first binding international agreement on climate change.

For many, the Paris Agreement represented the first meaningful step in combating climate change. It sets goals for global average temperatures and requires countries to submit plans and timelines for reducing emissions. And this landmark agreement has been followed by more international efforts. Every year, delegates come together at the Conference of the Parties, or COP, which is the United Nations conference on climate change and the body responsible for creating the Paris Agreement. They review the latest science, overall progress toward goals, and what’s been working. Worldwide, these goals in turn guide national policy and influence local governments. International goals have even influenced corporations around the world to set goals and put in place policies to address climate change.

Understanding climate goals

What exactly are climate goals? Well, climate goals can cover emissions-reduction targets such as net zero; outline the specific steps to reduce emissions; and create protections from the impacts of climate change for the most vulnerable people. Most climate goals also have a time element. They often include language like “get to net zero by 2050” or “stop burning fossil fuels by 2030.” The proposed timing of a goal is important: Reaching net zero by 2050 means something very different from reaching it by 2100. Each would require a different level of effort and investment. Each would lead to a different future for climate change and our ability to respond to it. Timelines are often a key piece of goal setting, and this is especially true with climate change. The difference of a few years can mean a big difference for a lot of people.

International agreements like the Paris Agreement are important for helping countries move toward action. However, one of the biggest criticisms of these agreements is that they have limited power. That’s because international bodies such as the United Nations can’t enforce such policies directly. Instead, it relies on voluntary cooperation and compliance from member countries. But what happens when countries don’t meet their commitments? Countries can collectively agree to refuse trade or partnerships with those that consistently don’t prioritize climate change. And there’s old-fashioned social pressure imposed by the United Nations and other countries at the annual discussions on progress. But beyond these responses, there’s not a lot that can be done to ensure accountability.

So, international climate goals are an important starting point, but they are only one piece of a bigger puzzle. They provide a framework and help everyone move in the same direction. Then, there are national, regional, and local climate goals.

The Paris Agreement sets out overarching international goals, but the “how” of achieving emissions reduction is left to the countries themselves. National goals are important because the governments of countries have a sovereign right to create and manage policies with the force of law. That means that at the national level, countries can address the important details to move from goals to meaningful action. For example, it’s best for a country—not an international organization—to determine requirements for what percentage of its electricity generation needs to come from wind energy, where new cities must be built, and how it should deal with heat waves.

Countries create national climate goals that set the tone for all levels of government below them. However, the powers of state and local governments vary greatly depending on the country. One small country might have several local state governments while a large country like the United States has multiple levels of government.

Exploring climate goals in the United States

To better understand these levels and how they interact, let’s look specifically at the layers of climate goals in the United States.

The United States federal government has power over activities that cross state borders, like national transportation infrastructure, electricity transmission, and air and water pollution. Therefore, they have the power to make policies related to vehicle manufacturing and sale, electricity transmission standards, and pollution amounts. The national government also has significant procurement power, meaning they buy a lot of things. They can directly support climate-friendly industries, like clean energy and low-carbon cement companies. They can invest in different kinds of research and development, like drought-tolerant crops and better building materials. Finally, the national government sets policies that trickle down to regional and local governments, making national climate goals even more significant.

However, changes in our presidency and Congress can impact the country’s climate goals. This variability is an important feature of a democratic system, but it can be a significant limitation in terms of maintaining consistency in climate-change policy, as inconsistent approaches have historically meant slower progress. Many industries are hesitant to commit to a target or rely on policy that may change in a few years. Current national goals prioritize “reducing US greenhouse gas emissions 50–52% below 2005 levels in 2030” and ensuring that the benefits of federal investment in climate solutions are felt in all communities.¹ However, these goals could change depending on the next election cycle.

State governments also play a key role in regulating electricity generation and planning infrastructure and public-works projects. For example, states can make it compulsory that electricity utilities companies invest in renewable energy, and they can choose low-carbon building materials for their projects. Often, state and local governments lay out their climate goals in documents called climate action plans (CAPs). These documents can be a set of goals, a full greenhouse- gas inventory, or a clear plan with steps, timelines, and responsible parties for each goal.

The role each state government chooses to play varies widely. California, for example, has required that car companies provide electric vehicle options to customers in the state; has implemented a statewide cap-and-trade program for carbon; and has supported the development of local climate-action plans. Other states have prioritized nuclear projects or carbon capture and sequestration while some have actually passed measures limiting progress in addressing climate change.

Meanwhile, local governments—those at the county or city level—can also play a role. They have the power to design climate strategies specific to the needs of their local economy and environment.

These governments can regulate how buildings are constructed and renovated through building codes, which can be updated to require more-efficient designs, full electrification, or low-carbon building materials. Local governments can also improve public transportation options and expand electric vehicle charging infrastructure.

In fact, in the United States, local governments have quite a lot of power, especially when it comes to addressing climate change mitigation and adaptation in their communities. For most people, the choices they have to reduce their emissions in their daily lives—the buildings they live in, the energy they use, the transportation they use—are influenced more by their local government than by national or international goals and policies. In 2021, the City of Seattle passed an ordinance that prohibits natural gas in all new buildings, ensuring complete electrification for new construction. In 2019, San Francisco released a plan to make the city’s transportation 100% emissions-free by 2040 with a focus on expanding electric vehicle charging.

Filling in the gaps in climate goals

The international, national, regional, and local climate goals do not operate independently or just trickle down from the higher levels to the local ones. Local governments, in setting ambitious goals, can push state and national governments by raising expectations. National governments can regulate or give different amounts of authority to state and local governments, as well as influence global policy. Investment or experimentation with solutions at any level can inform goals at other levels. We need climate goals and action at all levels. But these levels need to coordinate with, inform, and learn from each other for us to get to net zero.

And, of course, it isn’t only governments that set goals. Individual companies, nonprofit organizations, and trade associations also do so. Under the organization umbrella of Architecture 2030, architects and other designers have come together to create climate goals in the building industry. Their central goal—to have all new buildings and major renovations at zero carbon by 2030—guides investment and their work with policymakers. Other industries have similar frameworks that set agendas, focus private interests, and encourage investment in research and innovation. The success of climate policies at all levels relies heavily on the collective action of these businesses and industries.

We need climate goals. They may have the force of law by themselves, but they guide and coordinate climate action. Still, climate goals will look different across the world. Every country and region have its own context with its own history, community, resources, and geography. Therefore, every country and region will have a unique approach to climate change with a different set of solutions. And together, that is how we overcome the challenges of climate change.

1 National Climate Task Force, The White House, https://www.whitehouse.gov/climate/#:~:text=Reducing%20U.S.%20greenhouse%20gas%20emissions,pollution%2Dfree%20electricity%20by%202035