The Mauryan and Gupta Empires

Background

Before the Mauryan Empire, the Indian subcontinent was fragmented into hundreds of kingdoms that were ruled by powerful regional chiefs. Small armies, lots of wars. In 327 BCE, Alexander of Macedon and his troops entered India and overran the divided kingdoms in the Punjab region. He left after only two years, but his destruction of the regional powers opened the opportunity for other groups to seize control. The first of these dominating states to emerge, the kingdom of Magadha, was the center of two religions—Buddhism and Jainism. This state had survived the Macedonian invasion by being just out of Alexander’s reach. Alexander reached the borders of Magadha, but his exhausted troops threatened mutiny rather than continue. After Alexander’s retreat, the rulers of Magadha controlled trade networks through the Ganges valley to the sea routes in the Bay of Bengal, using a mixture of military force and the power of religion to win people over to their side.

Formation

Not too long after the Magadha gained control of the area from the Ganges to the Bay of Bengal, Chandragupta Maurya took control of the kingdom. His conquests transformed the Magadha kingdom into the Mauryan Empire. He expanded to the west, conquering northwestern India and Bactria (modern Afghanistan). Chandragupta Maurya successfully unified the divided communities of the northern and central Indian subcontinent under one empire.

Administration

Chandragupta ruled from 324 to 297 BCE and used his army to expand the empire. In 305 BCE Seleucus I Nicator, the emperor of the Seleucids, waged war against Chandragupta. Seleucus was one of several of Alexander’s generals who proclaimed themselves emperor after Alexander died unexpectedly with no heir. The Seleucid Empire stretched from the Mediterranean Sea all the way to northwestern India. They ruled for over three centuries after Alexander’s death, until 63 BCE. The Seleucids ruled a mighty empire, but Chandragupta raised an army to challenge their power. The Mauryan army had 600,000 infantry (foot soldiers), 30,000 cavalry (soldiers on horseback), and 9,000 war elephants (weaponized pachyderms that were basically tanks with legs). Facing this show of strength, Seleucus failed to conquer India. Chandragupta signed a treaty with Seleucus, who gave his daughter to Chandragupta in marriage and left India with 500 elephants as his consolation prize.

Chandragupta adopted the Persian model of satrapies (provinces) to administer his empire. He also read and applied the teachings of Kautilya, one of his trusted advisors, in the book Arthashastra, which translates to “the science of politics”. The Mauryans used vast spy networks to collect intelligence for both internal and external security purposes.

Toward the end of Chandragupta’s reign, the Indian subcontinent was hit by famine. The emperor felt so badly for his starving subjects that he gave up the throne and fasted. His son Bindusara took over, and after Chandragupta died from fasting in 297 BCE, Bindusara expanded the borders of the empire. Bindusara died in 272 BCE, and his son Ashoka became emperor in 268 BCE. Ashoka further extended the boundaries of the Mauryan Empire, but after a particularly violent battle in the Kalinga region (modern-day Orissa, a state of India), he renounced war in favor of “conquest by dharma”. One of Ashoka’s most lasting legacies was encouraging the spread of Buddhism and the principles of dharma (performing good deeds to reach enlightenment) throughout the empire.

If you’re an emperor, there are a lot of ways to get people to do what you want. Using swords and soldiers has always been a popular option, but Ashoka’s conquest by dharma was a revolutionary concept. This man was a warrior, known for his ferocity in battle. He was transformed by his conversion to Buddhism and his horror at the death and suffering he caused. The new, gentler Ashoka promised to never seek military conquest again and instead devoted the rest of his rule to spreading the Buddhist faith and seeing to the welfare of his people. He personally traveled the empire spreading his message, and he erected Buddhist structures across the empire. One of the most significant aspects of his conquest by dharma was his support of Buddhist missionaries. Ashoka sent missionaries to neighboring regions, helping begin the spread of Buddhism far outside the Indian subcontinent.

Like all empires, the Mauryan Empire could not last forever, and indeed it only survived Ashoka by fifty years. But three centuries later, the Gupta Empire emerged in the same region. Sri Gupta founded this empire between 240 and 280 CE. His successors expanded their territory through conquest and marriage. Under Chandragupta II, who reigned from 380 to 415 CE, the Gupta Empire extended across northern India. Like Ashoka, Chandragupta II made Pataliputra the capital of his empire and centralized the government there. He used tribute money from allies to fund government projects and salaries. However, he did not rely on a network of spies as the Mauryans had. He let regions make their own decisions about administration and local governance. The Gupta Empire was a golden age in India, marked by peace and public safety as the arts and sciences flourished.

Religion

Even before Ashoka’s conversion, religion played an important role in the Mauryan Empire. Chandragupta’s spiritual advisor predicted that the empire would face a famine. When this prediction came true, Chandragupta embraced the beliefs of Jainism and retreated to a life of fasting. Jainism is one of the oldest belief systems in India along with Hinduism and Buddhism. Many of its practices are similar including non-violence, asceticism (fasting and renouncing earthly possessions), vegetarianism, and rebirth.

After Ashoka gained control of the empire, he converted to Buddhism and spread those beliefs throughout the empire. Ashoka is perhaps best known for his construction of pillars that were inscribed with edicts (proclamations), and places of meditation and importance in the life of the Buddha called stupas. The pillars feature the teachings of both Ashoka and the Buddha and concentrate on respecting all life. Here are some examples:

“Rock Edict VII, King Priyadarsi wishes members of all faiths to live everywhere in his kingdom. For they all seek mastery of the senses and purity of mind. …Kalinga Edict II, King Priyadarsi says: …All men are my children. Just as I seek the welfare and happiness of my own children in this world and the next, I seek the same things for all men. Unconquered peoples along the borders of my dominions may wonder what my disposition is toward them. My only wish with respect to them is that they should not fear me, but trust me; that they should expect only happiness from me, not misery; that they should understand further that I will forgive them for offenses which can be forgiven; that they should be induced by my example to practice Dharma; and that they should attain happiness in this world and the next” (Ashoka, 51-53).

These were the public pronouncements of a man who, at the beginning of his rule, had been known for his cruelty and deadly conquests. Ashoka’s conversion had lasting effects on how he ruled, on the Indian subcontinent, and in the transformation of Buddhism into a world religion.

Trade

Regional and long-distance trade flourished under the rule of India’s ancient empires. Chandragupta Maurya established a single currency across India, a network of regional governors and administrators, and a civil service to provide justice and security for merchants, farmers, and traders. Farmers were no longer burdened by a regional kings’ tax or crop collection. Instead, they paid through a centrally administered tax system. The Mauryan and Gupta Empires’ political unity and internal peace encouraged the expansion of trade networks in India. During Ashoka’s reign, the government built major roadways, and the Mauryan international network of trade expanded. India’s exports to places like Bactria and Persia included silk, textiles, and spices.

Women and society

Much of Indian society was governed by a strict class system—known as the caste system—that divided people by their family’s professions and background. Caste often determined the rights and responsibilities people had in society.

Caste played a large role in shaping the lives of women. Women in both Mauryan and Gupta India were most often confined to roles as wives and mothers. Women’s legal and property rights were restricted, though many women maintained some rights to hold property, such as bride gifts from their families and husbands. Most upper-caste Indian women were secluded in the home, meaning they often had less freedom of movement than women from lower castes. Since they needed to work outside the home to provide for their family, women of lower castes often enjoyed more freedom of movement than those in the nobility. Many of these women worked in the textile industry and contributed to both the family and imperial economy. Their work generated revenue for their families, and traded their surplus goods at market. The labor of these women textile workers produced many of the export goods of both empires.

As Buddhism spread throughout India under the reign of Ashoka, many women joined Buddhist nunneries. Buddhists sought to escape the caste system by teaching how a person could overcome desire and achieve personal salvation through enlightenment. These teachings were appealing to many women living under the restrictions of India’s caste system.

Decline/fall

After Ashoka’s death, the Mauryan Empire dissolved and local rulers began to take charge of smaller regions, which were strategically placed along trade routes. The future leaders of the Gupta dynasty arose out of these small kingdoms a few centuries later. They conquered many regions of the former Mauryan Empire and forged alliances with kingdoms that chose not to fight against them. The Gupta Empire ended with the invasion of pastoralist tribes from Central Asia, at the end of the fifth century CE. The age of empires in India came to an end after the fall of the Gupta Empire. Several regional kingdoms ruled India until the sixteenth century CE, when the Mughal Empire conquered the subcontinent.