Introduction to this collection

This collection explores how different societies responded to increased European imperial expansion during the period from 1750 to 1900 CE.

Guiding question to think about as you read the documents: What techniques did different societies use in response to imperial expansion?

WHP Primary Source Punctuation Key

When you read through these primary source collections, you might notice some unusual punctuation like this: . . . and [ ] and ( ). Use the table below to help you understand what this punctuation means.

Contents

Source 1 – Five Rules to Regulate Foreigners, 1759 (0:35)

Source 2 – Letter from Micaela Bastidas to Tupac Amaru II, 1780 (4:15)

Source 3 – Nanyehi’s (Nancy Ward’s) address to the Cherokee Nation, 1817 (7:30)

Source 4 – Nana Asma’u on Sokoto rise, 1839 (12:00)

Source 5 – Statement of the Prophetess Nongqawuse, Xhosa “Cattle Killing Movement”, 1857 (16:50)

Source 1 – Five Rules to Regulate Foreigners, 1759 (0:35)

Guiding question

What techniques did different societies use in response to imperial expansion?

Excerpt

Since foreigners are outside the sphere of civilization, there is no need for them to have any contact with our people other than business transactions, whenever they come to China for trade purposes. … In an uncultivated, vulgar person the desire for material gain is always stronger than fear of the law; this is especially true of merchants, who often view law as a mere formality which can be violated at will. … The following rules, in the judgment of your humble servant, are both simple and practical enough to be adopted. They are presented here for Your Majesty’s consideration.

(1) Foreigners should never be allowed to stay at Canton during the winter. …

Even if foreigners have to stay through the winter on account of business, they move from Canton to Macao after their ships have sailed for home. Lately many foreign traders, under the pretext that some of their merchandise has not been sold or that their debtors have failed to discharge their obligations in full, entrust their ships and cargoes to the care of other merchants who proceed home, while they themselves stay on in Canton. During their stay they devote themselves to the study of the prices of various goods in different provinces …

Canton, being the capital of a province, is too important a place to allow foreigners to stay there on a permanent basis, since permanent residence will enable them to spy on our activities. From now on, when a foreign trader arrives at Canton, the Co-hong¹ merchants should sell all of his goods as quickly as possible, pay him immediately, so that he can return home in the ship that he came in. …

(2) While in Canton, foreigners should be ordered to reside in Co-hong headquarters so that their conduct can be carefully observed and strictly regulated.

… these foreigners often become drunk and commit breaches of the peace … Their behavior in this regard is of course extremely improper. …

Among the foreigners the British are the most violent and are prone to create incidents. …

Citation

1 Co-hong: a guild of Chinese merchants or hongs who operated the import-export monopoly in Canton (now Guangzhou) during the Qing dynasty (1644–1911).

Source 2 – Letter from Micaela Bastidas to Tupac Amaru II, 1780 (4:15)

Guiding question

What techniques did different societies use in response to imperial expansion?

Excerpt

I have warned you again and again not to dally in those villages, where there is nothing to do—but you continue to saunter, ignoring the fact that soldiers are running short of food. They are receiving their pay, but the money will not last forever. Then they will all depart, leaving us to pay with our lives, because you must have learned by this time that they came only for reasons of self-interest, and to get all they can out of us. They are already beginning to desert; …

Thus we will lose all the people that I have gotten together for the descent on Cuzco, and the forces at Cuzco will unite with the soldiers from Lima, who have been on the march for many days.

I must tell you this, though it pains me. If you want to ruin us, continue to sleep and commit such follies as that of passing alone through the streets of Yauri, and even climbing to the church tower—actions certainly out of place at this [time], and that only dishonor you and gain you disrespect.

I believed that you were occupied day and night with arranging these affairs, instead of showing an unconcern that robs me of my life. I am already a shadow of myself and beside myself with anxiety, and so I beg you to get on with this business.

You made me a promise, but henceforth [from here onwards] I shall not heed your promises, for you did not keep your word. …

I gave you plenty of warnings to march immediately on Cuzco, but you took them all lightly, giving the Spaniards time to prepare as they have done, placing cannon on Picchu Mountain, and devising other measures so dangerous that you are no longer in a position to attack them. …

God must want me to suffer my sins.

Your wife.

[P.S] After I had finished this letter, a messenger arrived with the definite news that the enemy from Paruro is in Acos; I am going forward to attack them, even if it costs me my life.

Citation

Source 3 – Nanyehi’s (Nancy Ward’s) address to the Cherokee Nation, 1817 (7:30)

Guiding question

What techniques did different societies use in response to imperial expansion?

Excerpt

Amovey [Tenn.] in Council 2nd May 1817

… The Cherokee [ladies] now being present at the meeting of the chiefs and warriors in council have thought it their duties as mothers to address their Chiefs and warriors now assembled.

Our beloved children and head men of the Cherokee nation, we address you warriors in council. We have raised all of you on the land which we now have, which God gave us to inhabit and raise provisions. We know that our country [had] once been extensive, but by repeated sales has become circumscribed to a small tract, and [we] never thought it our duty to interfere in the disposition of it till now. If a father or mother was to sell all their lands which they had to depend on which their children had to raise their living on which would be indeed bad—and to be removed to another country we do not wish to go to, an unknown country, which we have understood some of our children wish to go over the Mississippi [to this country], but this act of our children would be like destroying your mothers. You mothers, your sisters ask and beg of you not to part with any more of our lands. We say ours; you are descendants and [should] take pity on our request, [and] keep it for our growing children, for it was the good will of our creator to place [us] here.

And you know our father the great president will not allow his white children to take our country away. Only keep your hands off of paper talks, for it is our own country, for if it was not they would not ask you to put your hands to paper, for it would be impossible to remove us all, for as soon as one child is raised, we have others in our arms, for such is our situation and will consider our circumstance.

Therefore, children: don’t part with any more of our lands, but continue on it and enlarge your farms and cultivate and raise corn and cotton, and we your mothers and sisters will make clothing for you, which our father the president has recommended to us all. We don’t charge anybody for selling our lands, but we have heard such intentions of our children. But your talks become true at last, and it was our desire to forewarn you all not to part with our lands.

Nancy Ward to her children. Warriors to take pity and listen to the talks of your sisters, although I am very old, yet cannot but pity the situation in which you will hear of their minds. I have great many grandchildren which I wish they to do well on our land.

Nancy Ward Attested

A Mc Coy Clk.} Thos. Wilson Secty}

Jenny McIntosh	Widow Tarpin
Caty Harlan	Ally Critington
Elizabeth walker	Cun, o, ah
Susanna Fox	Miss Asty walker
Widow Gunrod	Mrs. M. Morgan
Widow Woman Holder	Mrs. Nancy Fields

Citation

Notes or additional materials

The Bill of Rights institute has supplemental materials for this source, include a close reading video: https://billofrightsinstitute.org/videos/reading-cherokee-women-address-their-nation-a-primary-source-close-read

Source 4 – Nana Asma’u on Sokoto rise, 1839 (12:00)

Guiding question

What techniques did different societies use in response to imperial expansion?

Excerpt

Now I am going to explain the practice of the Shehu²
For you to hear what was done in his time.
…
The Muslim community accepted his call everywhere,
Those of the east and west, because of his high standing.
…
He said men should take up their bows and quivers
As well as swords: you hear his command.
…
The Shehu, by all including his relatives Everyone resolved to support him
…
The Shehu fought five battles
At Gudu,³ all victories due to his blessedness.
…
Many of the reciters of the Qur’an⁴ were killed,
And also the students among his community.
…
Then Shehu travelled towards Zamfara,⁵
They made peace with him because they feared him.
The places that resisted the jihad⁶ were all destroyed
While he was in Remuwa,⁷ he was victorious
…
The people of the East all arose with firm intention
Of helping the religious fight, Alwali⁸ ran off, defeated
…
The Shehu divided responsibility (for the territories): to the west to his brother;
The eastern part to Bello his son.
…
Victory was obtained at every quarter
The chief of Gwari⁹ was confronted at Illo¹⁰
…
One Monday he came to Sokoto And he spent two years there.
Then he passed on to the next world, in the month of Jimada¹¹
It was on the third of the month.
…
Then things became very difficult,
The community selected Bello, his son to succeed him.
…
Revolts became numerous even Abdulsalam¹²
At Kware,¹³ rebelled, together with his people.
…
He was just and fair:
He brought order through the exhortation.
…
He built cities and fought battles,
So too he built mosques in his city.
…
Bello was ill for seven months
There in Wurno¹⁴ he died, in Rajab,¹⁵ on a Thursday
…

Citation

2 This is a reference to Shehu Usman dan Fodio, founder of the Sokoto Caliphate.
3 Town in modern-day Nigeria
4 Muslim holy book
5 Town in modern-day Nigeria
6 A struggle against oneself or a fight against the enemies of the Muslim community
7 Town in modern-day Nigeria
8 An opposing military leader
9 A tribe
10 A town in modern-day Nigeria
11 Month of the Islamic calendar. He died on April 20th, 1817.
12 A former ally of Shehu.
13 A town in modern-day Nigeria
14 A town in modern-day Nigeria
15 Rajab is the seventh month of the Islamic calendar.

Source 5 – Statement of the Prophetess Nongqawuse, Xhosa “Cattle Killing Movement”, 1857 (16:50)

Guiding question

What techniques did different societies use in response to imperial expansion?

Excerpt

My name is “Nonkosi.” My father and mother are dead, as also all my relations. My mother died of sickness, but my father and other relatives died of famine. My father died last moon; he used to have many cattle and was a witch- doctor in his practice. He was more frequently called upon by “Umhala” [Mhala] than any other Chief. … I was playing at a [marsh] near the Impongo, and bathing, when a man who called himself “Umlanjeni” [Mlanjeni, an earlier prophet] showed himself out of the water. I became afraid. The next day I went again to see him; he then spoke to me saying that he had come here to raise the dead, and that this was to be told by me to all the Chiefs. “Umlanjeni” took a liking to another girl who was with me at the time, saying I was reserved and did not answer his questions satisfactorily. He however afterwards said that this girl he had taken a fancy to, lived too far off, and that he wished to have communications with me as before. “Umlanjeni” told me that he had been to Moshesh [Moshoeshoe, the king of the Sotho] to put the country right, and had left some corn there. He showed me 6 cows in the water, their heads appearing above the surface of the water. … “Umlanjeni,” who sometimes came out of the water, and sat on the ground with me.

He told me that he came from a country underneath the [marsh] and said that there were a great many things there which we did not possess. One day, without knowing that I had moved from where I was standing at the side of the [marsh], I found myself in this country of which “Umlanjeni” spoke to me. There were a great many Kraals [cattle enclosures] with cattle, sheep, goats and pigs. Their huts were round, and very smoothly plastered, and they were filled with corn, bread and sugar. The first Kraal I came to was “Umlanjeni’s”; he said that he would not give me anything to eat, as their food would kill any person from the country above so long as all the cattle were not killed,—that one little girl had already died who [ate] it. In leaving this place I ascended a perpendicular hole, and was carried by “Umlanjeni.” When I reached the top I found that the water was spread over this place. I asked “Umlanjeni” why it was that the water did not flow down this hole. He said it was not water but a sort of door belonging to their country.

Citation