Introduction

Early humans migrated to the Americas at least 15,000 years ago, but possibly much earlier. They established foraging communities throughout North, Central and South America. As in other parts of the world, these foragers eventually began to farm crops, usually along river valleys. The Olmec, who lived in modern-day Mexico, was the earliest community to practice a mixture of farming and foraging methods like hunting and fishing. One of the earliest settlements in South America was the community at Chavín de Huántar in modern-day Peru. These cultures had a lot in common with other Mesoamerican and Andean people who inhabited these regions from the time the first humans arrived until the arrival of the Spanish in the fifteenth century. 

The Olmec (c. 1600-350 BCE)

Foraging communities lived in what is now south-central Mexico from at least 2500 BCE. Around 1600 BCE, the Olmec people founded settlements along the Coatzacoalcos River near the Gulf of Mexico in modern-day Veracruz, Mexico. These settlements included structures used for religious rituals and more permanent dwelling sites. The largest Olmec city was San Lorenzo, which was occupied at first by the elite rulers and religious leaders of Olmec society. Other major Olmec cities were located nearby along the Papaloapan and Tonalá rivers, in what is now Veracruz and Tabasco, Mexico. Archaeologists believe that central rulers, such as kings or chiefs, governed these cities using political and economic power as well as religious authority. 

The Olmec did not leave any written records, but archaeological evidence provides a wealth of information about this early Mesoamerican society. The most recognizable artifacts of the Olmec are the massive sculpted heads, each weighing around 20 tons, about as heavy as three elephants. The statues were carved out of mountains using a volcanic rock called basalt, and then transported about 60-70 kilometers (37-43 miles) to various sites. Scientists believe the heads represent Olmec kings.

Many of the Olmec’s sculptures, pottery and masks were created using clay and stone. However, there are also many pieces made from the green gemstone called jade and the glassy volcanic rock known as obsidian.

Jade and obsidian were both obtained from outside the Olmec settlements. Both materials were used often in Olmec art, suggesting the Olmec developed large trade networks with other cultures in order to obtain the materials. The Olmec likely influenced later societies like the Maya and Aztecs, who have some similarities with Olmec art and culture.

The main Olmec cities were reserved for the kings and elite members of Olmec society, and were usually places for rituals. Most people lived in more rural areas, where they worked as farmers and craftspeople. The Olmec cultivated a variety of crops including maize, cotton, squash and beans. The Olmec society was also one of the first to discover how to make rubber from the rubber tree. Archaeologists also found the ruins of a ball court, which the Olmec used to play an ancient Mesoamerican game using a rubber ball. In fact, it was the Aztecs who would give the Olmecs their name, which means “rubber people.”

The Olmec ballgame may have been played for sport, as well as part of a ritual where the losing team was killed in a ritual sacrifice. Human sacrifices were probably performed to make peace with the Olmec gods, who were male and female and took a combination of human and animal forms. They could have also been used as a way to control the people through a mixture of spiritual beliefs and fear.

At its height, Olmec society may have grown as large as 20,000 inhabitants. But without any written documents to confirm these numbers, archaeologists have to make assumptions based on the size of Olmec land, as well as artifacts. Over the course of Olmec history, it appears that certain cities became grew in importance at certain times, and then declined. This may indicate that the ritual centers had to be moved for some reason. Scientists have also suggested that climate change as well as volcanic eruptions could have ruined parts of Olmec farmland. These are the main reasons that historians use to explain why the Olmec society eventually ended around 350 BCE. 

Chavín (c. 900-250 BCE) 

About 5,500 km (3,500 miles) South of the Olmecs, a society known as the Chavín developed. The Chavín inhabited an area near two rivers on the coast of Peru, as well as in the Andes Mountains region. Like the Olmec up north, Chavín culture did not leave any written records, and we don’t even know what they were really called. Chavín comes from the Spanish name for the temple ruins at Chavín de Huántar.

Archaeologists have determined that the temple was used for religious rituals and may have been shared by different settlements in the region. The temple is like a maze, with numerous staircases and underground corridors. However, archaeologists haven’t found trash, living spaces or any other evidence of people living inside the temple. Renovations occurred at the temple after 500 BCE, possibly to make more space for the growing number of people taking part in religious ceremonies.

The dwellings and agricultural sites they did find at Chavín were spread apart outside of the temple complex. Crops like quinoa were grown in the area near the river, while potatoes were grown in the mountains. More pottery was produced after 500 BCE, suggesting that the Chavín were producing more food and needed more jars to store the extra food. There is also evidence that the Chavín society raised llamas to transport goods throughout the Chavín region and beyond. Chavín goods have been found hundreds of miles away from Chavín land, and other communities used Chavín artistic style in their own art. This leads scientists to believe that the Chavín were part of a large trade network and communicated with other communities.

Chavín society was organized in a hierarchy, meaning members of the society were ranked by social status. At the top of the hierarchy were shaman-priests, who had the most authority. As in Olmec society, the residents of Chavín may have been controlled through the use of religion and fear. This indicates that Chavín society may have had a central political ruler, such as a religious leader, but we don’t really know how their society was organized politically.

The Chavín people used gold to create crowns, masks and jewelry, and they also wove cotton textiles. At its height, the center of Chavín society occupied an area of about 1,000 acres, which could support a population of about 2,000-3,000 people. Scientists are not sure why the Chavín society’s population declined or relocated, but it’s possible that the land was overused, resulting in environmental changes. Another possibility is that the Chavín’s religious site became less important for some reason.