Geography and Environment

The people of Mesopotamia, like many of the people of early complex societies, settled along river valleys. The Tigris and Euphrates Rivers flow from the Zagros Mountains in the north to the Persian Gulf in the south. The fertile soil in these river valleys allowed both foragers and farmers to flourish. These early societies developed new irrigation techniques that helped them expand their farming. Around 3800 BCE, as more people settled in this region, large city-states such as Eridu, Ur, and Uruk formed in southern Mesopotamia. Collectively, scholars call the people who lived in this group of southern city-states Sumerians. While Sumerian city-states were independent, they shared a common language and culture. The city-states in northern Mesopotamia came to be known as Akkad.

Mesopotamia is relatively flat and semi-arid. But when the snows thawed in the Zagros Mountains the rivers flooded, leaving behind fertile soil for agriculture. This annual flooding coupled with irrigation and canal systems allowed for larger farms and the farming of staple crops like wheat and barley. Unfortunately, the flooding of the rivers was difficult to predict. Over time, the flooding and semi-arid climate contributed to a buildup of salt in the soil. The combination of flooding and rising salt content meant that a city-state’s harvest could be ruined.

When harvests were plentiful, food could be stored and traded for items that could not be found locally. Mesopotamian city-states traded items such as wheat, barley, reeds, and clay pottery with other societies. In return, Mesopotamians received goods such as metals, wood, and precious stones like lapis lazuli from societies in Egypt, India, and Afghanistan.

Political Structure

The political structure of Mesopotamia was closely tied to the environmental conditions present in this “land between two rivers.” Why would that matter politically? Well, fertile soil usually led to plentiful, valuable crops. Surplus crops had to be stored and distributed to people. Someone had to oversee large projects like building irrigation systems, canals, and walls to protect a city-state’s food supply. Each city- state had a ruler, usually a king, who directed these projects. Rulers claimed to speak with the gods, which enabled them to protect their crops and people. Each city-state needed access to water and land. It’s not too surprising that conflicts often broke out between the city-states over access to water and land. So, a city-state also needed a strong ruler who commanded soldiers to protect the city. Mesopotamia’s location and lack of natural defenses like mountains and oceans also left it open to outside threats.

During Sargon’s reign (c. 2334–2279 BCE), the Akkadian Empire stretched from the Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf. To control his empire, Sargon created the first standing army, which included about 5,000 soldiers. He also established the first postal system, which he used to communicate with his officials. He made Akkadian the empire’s official language, built roads, and standardized weights and measures. These reforms helped trade flourish. He appointed people he trusted to positions of power, including making his daughter Enheduanna a high priestess in Ur, one of Mesopotamia’s most important cities.

But Sargon’s reign was not without problems. Sargon had to use his standing army to put down many rebellions. After he died, Sargon’s male heirs reigned until 2150 BCE, when a famine weakened the empire. A nomadic people from the Zagros Mountains defeated Sargon’s dynasty. The empire broke apart as city-states reasserted their independence. But the Akkadian Empire was not forgotten. Sargon served as the model ruler for future Mesopotamian kings such as Hammurabi of the Babylonian Empire and Sargon II of the Assyrian Empire.

Culture

As Mesopotamia was “the land of firsts,” it’s not surprising that this is where scholars believe writing first developed, in about 3400 BCE. Using the clay common to Mesopotamia, people began carving symbols into soft clay. As the clay dried and hardened in the Sun, it became much more durable. Thanks to the climate of Mesopotamia, these clay tablets have been preserved for thousands of years. The Sumerians wrote in a script called cuneiform. The preserved tablets allow us to see such things as records of trade transactions for items such as bushels of wheat; religious inscriptions; and letters, which traveled along Sargon’s postal system.

While writing for recordkeeping was important, Mesopotamians also used these clay tablets to write literature. The first epic poem, The Epic of Gilgamesh, was written in Akkadian. It tells the story of Gilgamesh and his quest for immortality. We don’t know the author of this epic, but as mentioned earlier, Mesopotamia holds the record for the first named author. Enheduanna (c. 2285–2250 BCE), priestess and daughter of Sargon, wrote poetry dedicated to gods and goddesses. She also wrote about her life, including how a corrupt priest harassed her and exiled her from the temple. When Enheduanna was reinstated to her position, she wrote the poem “The Exaltation of Inanna,” in which she thanks the goddess of love and war. We know about Enheduanna because this poem was one of the 10 required texts that scribes copied at school to perfect their craft. This is one reason her writings have survived—there were hundreds of copies made!

Writing wasn’t the only cultural accomplishment of the Mesopotamians. The Sumerians used geometry to survey land for agriculture and irrigation. Mesopotamian astronomers studied the heavens (and named the five planets closest to Earth), predicted eclipses, and created the zodiac signs. They even invented the 24-hour day—with 60-minute hours and 60-second minutes—that we still use today, over 5,000 years later!

Society

Like most complex agrarian societies, Mesopotamian society was hierarchical, and religion played an important role in everyday life. The king and nobles sat atop the social pyramid along with priests and priestesses. The lower classes and enslaved were at the bottom of this pyramid. The king had a special relationship with the gods, and some kings claimed to be divine. High priests or priestesses like Enheduanna lived in the city’s temples, called ziggurats. They ensured that proper rituals were performed to appease the gods and goddesses. Nobles and those of the upper classes held a variety of jobs such as merchants, military officers, and scribes. Most people were part of the lower classes and worked as farmers, soldiers, and artisans. People were often enslaved when captured in war, but some also sold themselves into slavery to pay off debts. People could, however, buy their freedom and move up or down the social pyramid.

Mesopotamian society was also divided by gender. Kings usually had the most power, although some women held positions of power. Women of the lower classes often worked as midwives, perfumers, brewers, or tavern managers. Yes, beer was pretty popular—there was even a goddess of beer!

Decline and Transformation