Geography and Environment

Two major rivers flow through the land that was Mesopotamia. One is the Tigris, and the other is the Euphrates. Both start in the Zagros Mountains in the north and flow to the Persian Gulf in the south. The people of Mesopotamia settled in the valleys along these two great rivers. The highly fertile river valley soil was perfect for farming. Early societies in the region also developed new irrigation methods, or ways of watering crops and land. Agriculture in the region became very advanced. Around 3800 BCE, large city-states such as Eridu, Ur, and Uruk formed in southern Mesopotamia. The people who lived in this group of southern city-states were known as Sumerians. The city-states in northern Mesopotamia came to be known as Akkad.

Mesopotamia was semi-arid, meaning it didn’t get much rain. But when the snows thawed in the Zagros Mountains, the rivers flooded, leaving behind fertile soil. This yearly flooding made large-scale farming possible. Unfortunately, floods were difficult to predict. Over time, the flooding and semi-arid climate contributed to a buildup of salt in the soil. The mix of flooding and rising salt content meant a city-state’s harvest could be ruined. When this happened, there was widespread hunger.

Political Structure

The political structure of Mesopotamia was closely tied to the region’s environmental conditions. Why would environmental conditions matter politically? Well, fertile soil usually led to a lot of valuable crops. Extra crops had to be stored and given to people. Someone had to oversee large projects, like building irrigation or watering systems, canals, and walls to protect a city- state’s food supply. Each city-state had a ruler, usually a king, who led these projects. Every city-state needed access to water and land. As a result, conflicts often broke out between the city-states. So, a city-state also required a strong ruler who commanded soldiers.

During Sargon’s reign (c. 2334 to 2279 BCE), the Akkadian Empire stretched from the Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf. To control his empire, Sargon created the first permanent army. It had about 5,000 soldiers. He also made the first postal system to send messages to his officials. These reforms helped trade increase. He selected people he trusted for offices. For example, he made his daughter Enheduanna a high priestess of Ur.

After Sargon died, his male heirs reigned until 2150 BCE. At that point, a famine, or shortage of food, weakened the empire. A nomadic people from the Zagros Mountains defeated Sargon’s dynasty. City-states became independent again, and the empire broke apart. But the Akkadian Empire wasn’t forgotten. Sargon served as the model ruler for future kings such as Hammurabi of the Babylonian Empire and Sargon II of the Assyrian Empire.

Culture

Mesopotamia developed the world’s first writing system in about 3400 BCE. The Sumerians wrote on clay tablets using a script called cuneiform. Thanks to the climate of Mesopotamia, these tablets still exist. The tablets allow us to see such things as records of trade, letters, and stories.

The first epic poem, The Epic of Gilgamesh, was written in Akkadian. It tells the story of Gilgamesh and his attempt to live forever. We don’t know the author of this epic, but Mesopotamia holds the record for the first named author. She was a woman called Enheduanna (c. 2285 to 2250 BCE). Enheduanna was Sargon’s daughter and a priestess. She wrote poetry about gods and goddesses, but she also wrote about her own life.

Writing wasn’t the only cultural achievement of the Mesopotamians. The Sumerians used a branch of math, geometry, to survey land for farming and irrigation. Mesopotamian astronomers named the five planets closest to Earth, predict- ed eclipses, and created the zodiac signs. They even invented the 24-hour day—with 60-minute hours and 60-second minutes—that we still use today!

Society

Like most complex agrarian societies, Mesopotamian society was hierarchical, meaning it was divided into levels. The king and nobles were at the top, along with priests and priestesses. The lower classes and the enslaved were at the bottom. Members of the upper classes held a variety of jobs, such as merchants, military officers, and scribes. Most people were in the lower classes and worked as farmers, soldiers, and artisans. A large number of people were enslaved. Most became enslaved after being captured in war, but some sold themselves into slavery to pay off debts. People could buy their freedom.

Men and women had different roles in Mesopotamian society. In general, men had the most power. However, some women held important positions. Women of the lower classes often worked as midwives, perfumers, brewers, or tavern managers.

Religion was important in everyday life. The king was believed to have a special relationship with the gods. Some kings even claimed to be divine, or god-like. Priests and priestesses like Enheduanna lived in the city’s temples, called ziggurats.

Decline and Transformation