All shapes and sizes

We think of empires as being really big. The British Empire certainly was. It controlled around a quarter of the world! But many empires were quite small. The Akkadian Empire of Mesopotamia (2330–2200 BCE) only controlled an area about the size of South Carolina. Yet, it left a lasting mark on history. Empires don’t need to be big to be important.

Developing a definition

What is an empire? It is a political system in which a strong central state controls weaker peripheral, or outer, states. Not all empires are the same, though. The center’s control over its peripheries can be strong or weak. It can change over time.

The earliest known empire was the Akkadian Empire. For around 1,000 years, Mesopotamia was divided into city-states. Each of these was based around a single city, which controlled the area around it. In 2330 BCE, Sargon of Akkad conquered southern Mesopotamia. He ruled from the city of Akkad. The other city-states became the periphery of Sargon’s empire. The people of these city-states did not become Akkadians, though. They kept their own culture.

Compare this to what happened in Egypt. Between 3100 and 3000 BCE, a ruler of Upper Egypt conquered Lower Egypt. But Egypt didn’t become an empire. It became a kingdom. Upper and Lower Egypt became politically and culturally united. The people of both regions thought of themselves as “Egyptians.” They no longer identified with a particular city or region.

Empires grow out of the drive to win greater power. Let’s look at two examples. In Mesopotamia, city-state rulers won more power by conquering their neighbors. In China, the Qin conquered the kingdoms around them. They then created the first Chinese empire. That empire began in 221 BCE.

So why empire?

Why would rulers want an empire in the first place? Running an empire is hard. For one thing, peripheral peoples often rebel. Putting these rebellions down is expensive. Empires need to be worth the high cost.

There is no single reason empires existed. Let’s look at Mesopotamia. For them, empire was a solution to a problem. The region did not have hard wood, stone, metal ore, and other important resources. True, these things could be gotten through trade. But conquering regions with these resources was easier. It gave the empire a cheaper and more dependable supply.

For other empires, the main goal wasn’t resources. Sometimes, the goal was safety. Other times it was riches. Or it could be both. Rome first spread out of Italy because it feared the states around it. The Romans decided to attack these states before they could hurt Rome. As their empire grew, resources flowed into Rome. This made the Roman Empire very rich.

Center vs. Periphery

Empires are not democratic. The relationship between center and periphery is as unequal one. The center believes it is superior. This provides an excuse for its control of the periphery. Often, laws make inequality greater. People living in the periphery do not have the same rights as those in the center.

Peripheral peoples are not seen as true citizens. The laws do not protect them. Roman governors could do what they wanted to peripheral peoples. They were allowed to rob, beat, and even kill them. China’s Han Empire also mistreated its peripheral peoples.

Challenges to empire

Running an empire is not easy. The earliest Mesopotamian empires fell apart quickly. Their rulers didn’t yet know how to run an empire. Ruling and feeding millions was no easy trick. Neither was defending an empire against its enemies. There was a lot for rulers to learn.

Then there is the periphery problem. We’ve seen how the strong center often oppresses the weak outsiders. But sometimes the situation is different. When the periphery is strong, it’s hard for the center to control it. This was true in the Akkadian Empire. Each time an Akkadian Emperor died, the new emperor faced uprisings in the periphery.

Nomadic peoples living beyond an empire’s borders could also be a problem. These wandering groups did not live permanently in any one place. They needed resources from the empire. However, they were seen as “barbarians.” They often had to attack the empire to get anything.

Another problem empires can face is becoming too large. As empires grow, controlling the periphery becomes harder. More and more people live far from the center. Most do not feel very connected to the empire. Large armies are needed to stop them from breaking away.

Also, as an empire grows, so do its borders. Longer borders cost more to defend. The Roman Empire had a hard time protecting its very long borders against invaders. So did the Han Empire.

Conclusion

Empires have formed throughout history. They have been found all over the world. The earliest were short- lived. Over time, empires became better at holding on to their control over other people. But running an empire is expensive. When empires fall, it is usually because they can no longer pay the necessary costs.