Mesopotamia was a land of firsts. It was where agriculture first developed and where the first empires emerged. Mesopotamians created the first written language and the world’s first law code. One of Mesopotamia’s lesser-known firsts? Mesopotamia was also home to the first named author in history. This author was Enheduanna, a high priestess, poet, and the daughter of Sargon the Great, ruler of the world’s first empire. In this article, you’ll learn about the many firsts that took place in Mesopotamia from c. 3800 to 331 BCE.

Geography and environment

The people of Mesopotamia, like many of the people in early agricultural societies, settled along river valleys. The Tigris and Euphrates Rivers flow from the Zagros Mountains in the north to the Persian Gulf in the south. The fertile soil in these river valleys provided good conditions for planting crops. Early Mesopotamian societies developed new irrigation techniques that helped them expand their farming. Around 3800 BCE, as more people settled in this region, large city-states such as Eridu, Ur, and Uruk formed in southern Mesopotamia. Scholars call the people who lived in this group of southern city-states Sumerians. While Sumerian city-states were independent, they shared a common language and culture. The city-states in northern Mesopotamia came to be known as Akkad.

Mesopotamia was relatively flat and dry. But when the snows thawed in the Zagros Mountains, the rivers flooded, leaving behind fertile soil for agriculture. This annual flooding, combined with irrigation and canal systems, meant that people could build larger farms for producing staple crops like wheat and barley. Unfortunately, the flooding was difficult to predict. Over time, the flooding and dry climate contributed to a buildup of salt in the soil. The combination of flooding and rising salt content meant that a city-state’s harvest could be ruined.

When harvests were good, food could be stored and traded for items that weren’t found locally. Mesopotamian city-states traded items such as wheat, barley, reeds, and clay pottery with other societies. In return, Mesopotamians received goods such as metals, and wood, as well as precious stones like lapis lazuli from societies in Egypt, India, and Afghanistan.

Political structure

The political structure of Mesopotamia was closely tied to the environmental conditions in this “land between two rivers.” Why would that matter politically? Well, fertile soil usually led to plentiful, valuable crops. Surplus crops had to be stored and distributed to people. Someone had to oversee large projects like building irrigation systems, canals, and walls to protect the city-state’s food supply. Each city-state had a ruler, usually a king, who directed these projects. Rulers claimed to speak with the gods.

Each city-state needed access to water and land. As cities expanded and competed for resources, wars often broke out between the city-states. So, a city-state also needed a strong ruler who commanded soldiers to protect the city. Mesopotamia’s location and lack of natural defenses like mountains and oceans also left it open to invasions from people outside the region. 

A man named Sargon conquered the world’s first empire—the Akkadian Empire. During his rule (c. 2334–2279 BCE), the Akkadian Empire stretched from the Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf. To control his empire, Sargon created the first standing army, which included about 5,000 soldiers. He also established the first postal system, which he used to communicate with his officials. He made Akkadian the empire’s official language, built roads, and standardized weights and measures. These reforms helped trade flourish. He appointed people he trusted to positions of power, and made his daughter Enheduanna a high priestess in Ur, one of Mesopotamia’s most important cities.

But Sargon’s reign was not without problems. He used his standing army to put down many rebellions. After he died, Sargon’s male heirs reigned until 2150 BCE, when a famine weakened the empire. A nomadic people from the Zagros Mountains were then able to defeat Sargon’s dynasty. The empire broke apart as city-states declared their independence. But the Akkadian Empire was not forgotten. Sargon served as the model ruler for future Mesopotamian kings, such as Hammurabi of the Babylonian Empire and Sargon II of the Assyrian Empire.

Culture

As Mesopotamia was “the land of firsts,” it’s not surprising that it’s where scholars believe writing first developed, around 3400 BCE. People began carving symbols into soft clay. As the clay dried and hardened in the Sun, it became much more durable. Thanks to the climate of Mesopotamia, these clay tablets have been preserved for thousands of years. The Sumerians wrote in a script called cuneiform. We know a great deal about early Mesopotamian life thanks to the cuneiform tablets they left behind. Cuneiform, or “wedge-shaped” writing, was carved into soft clay using a reed stylus. The preserved tablets allow us to see records of trade, accounting of grain storage, religious writing, and letters that traveled along Sargon’s postal system.

While writing as a way of keeping records was important, Mesopotamians also used these clay tablets to write literature. The first epic poem, “The Epic of Gilgamesh,” was written in Akkadian. It tells the story of Gilgamesh and his quest for immortality. We don’t know the author of this epic, but as mentioned earlier, Mesopotamia holds the record for the first named author. Enheduanna (c. 2285–2250 BCE), priestess and daughter of Sargon, wrote poetry dedicated to gods and goddesses. She also wrote about her life, including how a corrupt priest harassed her and exiled her from the temple. When Enheduanna was reinstated to her position, she wrote the poem “The Exaltation of Inanna,” in which she thanks the goddess of love and war. We know about Enheduanna because this poem was one of the texts that scribes were required to copy at school to perfect their craft. This is one reason her writings have survived—there were hundreds of copies made.

Writing wasn’t the only cultural accomplishment of the Mesopotamians. The Sumerians used geometry to survey land for agriculture and irrigation. Mesopotamian astronomers studied the heavens (and named the five planets closest to Earth), predicted eclipses, and created the zodiac signs. They even invented the 24-hour day—with 60-minute hours and 60-second minutes—that we still use today, more than 5,000 years later.

Society 

Like most complex agrarian societies, Mesopotamian society was hierarchical, and religion played an important role in everyday life. The king and nobles sat atop the social pyramid along with priests and priestesses. The lower classes and enslaved were at the bottom of this pyramid. The king had a special relationship with the gods, and some kings claimed to be divine. High priests or priestesses like Enheduanna lived in the city’s temples, called ziggurats.

They ensured that proper rituals were performed to appease the gods and goddesses. Nobles and those of the upper classes held a variety of jobs such as merchant, military officer, and scribe. Most people were part of the lower classes and worked as farmers, soldiers, and artisans. People were often enslaved when captured in war, but some also sold themselves into slavery to pay off debts. People could, however, buy their freedom and move up or down the social pyramid.

Mesopotamian society was also divided by gender. Kings had the most power, but some women held positions of power. Women of the lower classes often worked as midwives, perfumers, brewers, or tavern managers.

Decline and transformation

Mesopotamia began as a collection of independent city-states. But then it transformed into a succession of empires including the Akkadians, Babylonians, Assyrians, and Persians before becoming part of Alexander the Great’s empire in 331 BCE. This region had few natural barriers, so invaders from other regions could easily conquer a Mesopotamian empire if it grew weak. This happened often. Internal politic—such as bad rulers—could lead to an empire’s decline. But environmental changes also played a role in the decline of many Mesopotamian empires. Life in Mesopotamia depended on the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers and the irrigation that supplied farms with water. If the flooding could not be controlled or the soil absorbed too much salt, crops failed. Crop failures led to famines. Famines weakened the authority of kings and sparked rebellions. Outsiders seized these moments of weakness and invaded, establishing the pattern of decline and transformation in Mesopotamia.