Source Collection: The Ancient World
Document 1
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Author |
Unknown |
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Date and location |
3200–3000 BCE, Aswan, Egypt |
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Source type |
Primary source—images of archaeological artifact |
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Description |
These are two images of an ancient Egyptian palette, which was used during ceremonies to mix the king’s eye makeup. A palette, in this context, is a carved board of wood or stone—in this case siltstone. This palette is thought to have belonged to Narmer, who was the ruler of the first Egyptian dynasty. This may seem like an ordinary object, but the artwork on the palette gives us a clue as to how the ancient Egyptian empire formed. On one side, Narmer is shown wearing the crown of lower Egypt and defeating someone. On the other side, we see a similar scene, where the king has defeated enemies. He is a large figure and controls two lionesses. He is also shown as a bull crushing a town of rebels. Shape-shifting imagery was common for rulers, who were seen as divine, a bit like today’s superheroes. |
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Citation |
Narmer Palette. © Amir Makar / AFP via Getty Images. |
Images of the palette of King Narmer, the ruler of the Egypt’s First Dynasty, c. 3200–3000 BCE.
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Glossary Palette: A slab or board on which paints, makeup, or other types of color may be mixed. |
Document 2
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Author |
Hammurabi (reigned 1792–1750 BCE) |
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Date and location |
c. 1755–1750 BCE, Babylon |
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Source type |
Primary source—legal code |
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Description |
Hammurabi was a Mesopotamian king who ruled over the Old Babylonian Empire from 1792 to 1750 BCE. Below are some laws from the Code of Hammurabi, one of the oldest documents of laws in the world. Scholars think these laws were created or compiled by Hammurabi, as they were composed during his reign around 1755– 1750 BCE. |
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Citation |
“The Code of Hammurabi.” Adapted from the translation by L.W. King. Yale Law School, Lillian Goldman Law Library, 2008. https://avalon.law.yale.edu/ancient/hamframe.asp. |
When the god Marduk sent me to rule over men, to give the protection of right to the land, I did right…and brought about the well-being of the oppressed…
5. If a judge tries a case, reaches a decision, and presents his judgment in writing; if later error shall appear in his decision, and it be…his own fault, then he shall pay twelve times the fine set by him…and he shall be publicly removed from the judge’s bench, and never again shall he sit there to render judgment.
6. If anyone steals the property of a temple or of the court, he shall be put to death, and the one who receives the stolen thing from him shall be put to death…
22. If anyone is committing a robbery and is caught, then he shall be put to death…
42. If anyone takes over a field to till it, and obtains no harvest therefrom, it must be proved that he did no work on the field, and he must deliver grain, just as his neighbor raised, to the owner of the field…
196. If a man put out the eye of another man, his eye shall be put out…
Laws of justice that Hammurabi, the wise king, established. A righteous law, and pious statute did he teach the land. Hammurabi, the protecting king am I.
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Glossary Oppressed: Treated unfairly or cruelly by someone in power. |
Document 3
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Author |
Attributed to Kautilya, an adviser to the Mauryan emperor Chandragupta. |
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Date and location |
India, around 250 BCE |
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Source type |
A written manual |
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Description |
The Arthashastra is a Sanskrit text about government, law, and military strategy. It explains how a ruler should collect taxes, maintain order, and deal with other rulers. The text combines philosophy with practical advice. |
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Citation |
Excerpt from The Arthashastra, an ancient Sanskrit treatise on correct government, c. 250 BCE. In Kauṭilya, Kauṭilya’s Arthashastra. Translated by R. Shamasastry. Bangalore: P Government Press, 1915. |
If a king is energetic, his subjects will be...If he is reckless, they will not only be reckless…but also eat into his works…a reckless king will easily fall into the hands of his enemies. Hence the king shall ever be wakeful. . . .
…in his court he shall never cause his petitioners to wait…for when a king makes himself inaccessible to his people and entrusts his work to his immediate officers, he may be sure to engender confusion…and…public disaffection, and himself a prey to his enemies. He shall…personally attend to the business of gods…heretics…Brahmans learned in the Vedas…cattle…sacred places…minors…the aged…the afflicted…the helpless…and women; all this in order . . . or according to the urgency or pressure of those works. . . .
Sacred Law, evidence, history, and edicts of kings are the four legs of Law…Sacred Law [Dharma] is eternal truth holding its sway over the world; evidence is in witnesses; history is to be found in the tradition of the people; and the order of kings…consists in protecting his subjects with justice, its observance leads him to heaven. He who does not protect his people or upsets the social order wields his royal scepter in vain…power…exercised by the king with impartiality and in proportion to guilt…maintains both this world and the next. . . .
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Glossary Brahmans (Brahmins): Those members of a class in Indian society who performed religious rituals and preserved sacred knowledge. |
Document 4
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Author |
Unknown, possibly written during Zhou Dynasty |
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Date and location |
c. 1046–256 BCE, China |
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Source type |
Primary source—collection of historical documents |
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Description |
This is a part of the Classic of History, a collection of documents that include both Chinese history and legend from 2357 to 731 BCE. The collection was organized during the Han Dynasty (202 BCE–220 CE). Scholars estimate that the excerpt below was originally written during the Zhou Dynasty (1046 BCE–256 BCE). The text describes advice given by government minister Yi Yin to a young Shang Dynasty king upon the death of the new king’s father. This advice about the king’s duties and responsibilities touches on the Mandate of Heaven. The Mandate of Heaven was an ancient Chinese idea that explained why kings succeeded or fell. Some scholars think the Zhou promoted this theory to justify their takeover of the Shang. |
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Citation |
The Sacred Books of China, The Texts of Confucianism. Translated by James Legge. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1885. |
In the twelfth month of the first year . . . Yi Yin sacrificed to the former king, and presented the heir-king reverently before the shrine of his grandfather. All the princes from the territory of the nobles and the royal territory were present . . . Yi Yin then clearly described the complete goodness of the Meritorious Ancestor for the instruction of the young king.
He said, “Oh! of old the former kings of Xia worked hard at their goodness, and then there were no calamities from Heaven. The spirits of the hills and rivers alike were all in peacefulness; and the birds and beasts, the fishes and tortoises, all enjoyed their existence according to their nature. But their descendant did not follow their example, and great Heaven sent down calamities, employing the work of our ruler- who was in possession of its favoring appointment. Our king of Shang brilliantly displayed his skillfulness; for abuse he substituted his generous gentleness; and the millions of the people gave him their hearts. Now your Majesty is entering on the inheritance of his goodness; all depends on how you begin your reign. To set up love, it is for you to love your relations; to set up respect, it is for you to respect your elders. The beginning is in the family and the state. . . .
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Glossary Reverently: Respectfully, honoring something or someone. |
Document 5
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Author |
Confucius (c. 551–479 BCE) |
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Date and location |
475–221 BCE, China |
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Source type |
Primary source—philosophical work |
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Description |
Below are some selections from the thoughts of Confucius, a Chinese philosopher. Confucius lived during the Warring States Period, when civil wars plagued China. He taught that society and government would improve if people were respectful of each other and knew their place in the family and society. Most of his teachings are in the form of conversations with his students. These teachings were collected by Confucius’s students and followers. They contain moral lessons for people of all social classes. |
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Citation |
Legge, James, ed. The Chinese Classics: Vol. 1: Confucian Analects, the Great Learning, and the Doctrine of the Mean. London: Trubner & Co., 1861. |
2:3 The Master said, “If the people be led by laws, and uniformity sought to be given them by punishments, they will try to avoid the punishment, but have no sense of shame. If they be led by virtue . . . they will have the sense of shame and moreover will become good.”
2:5 Mang E asked what filial piety was. The Master said, “It is not being disobedient.”
2:19 The duke Gae asked, “What should be done in order to secure the submission of the people?” Confucius replied, “Advance the upright and set aside the crooked, then the people will submit. Advance the crooked and set aside the upright, then the people will not submit.”
2:21 Someone said to Confucius, “Why does the Master not take part in government? The Master said, “. . . Be filial. Just being filial and friendly toward one’s brothers has its effect on government.”
12:2 Rang Yong asked about humaneness. The Master said, “When going abroad, treat everyone as if you were receiving a great guest; when employing the people, do so as if assisting in a great sacrifice. What you do not want for yourself, do not do to others. There should be no resentment in the state, and no resentment in the family.”
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Glossary Virtue: Good or positive traits. |
Document 6
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Author |
Ashoka (died c. 232 BCE) |
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Date and location |
268–232 BCE, India |
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Source type |
Primary source—royal decree |
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Description |
Emperor Ashoka ruled over the Mauryan Empire from 268 to 232 BCE. The Mauryan Empire stretched across most of modern-day India. Emperor Ashoka became a Buddhist and helped spread Buddhism throughout India. He put up dozens of messages on large rocks, cave walls, and pillars. Many of his messages promoted Buddhist beliefs. Ashoka talked about dhamma (or dharma), an idea that is shared between Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism. Dhamma is a way of life that values selflessness, compassion, and fulfilling one’s duties to the family and community. In Ashoka’s political messages, dhamma also meant a kind of cosmic harmony, order, and balance. In these messages, Ashoka referred to himself as Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi. |
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Citation |
Dhammika, Ven. S., ed. The Edicts of King Ashoka. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society, 1993. https://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/ashoka.html. |
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, has caused this Dhamma law to be written. Here in my domain no living beings are to be slaughtered or offered in sacrifice. . . .
In the past, for many hundreds of years, killing or harming living beings and improper behavior towards relatives, and improper behavior towards Brahmans and ascetics has increased. But now due to Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi’s Dhamma practice, the sound of the drum has been replaced by the sound of the Dhamma. . . .
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi promotes restraint in the killing and harming of living beings, proper behavior towards relatives, Brahmans and ascetics, and respect for mother, father and elders.
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, desires that all religions should reside everywhere, for all of them desire self-control and purity of heart. Those who are content with their own religion should be told this: Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, does not value gifts and honors as much as he values that there should be growth in the essentials of all religions.
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Glossary Brahmans (Brahmins): Members of a class in Indian society who performed religious rituals and preserved sacred knowledge. |