Transformative Dynasty

The Han dynasty is one of the great dynasties in Chinese history. It spanned nearly 400 years. A dynasty is, essentially, a period of rule of a kingdom or empire by a single family. In China, though, size and makeup an imperial “family” can be quite flexible. In Chinese history, there have been nine major dynasties. Most were created by royal families who emerged from within China.

The Han dynasty leaders came from the Han region of China. This period of rule happened at the same time as the Roman Republic and Empire in western Afro-Eurasia. Politically, it established the imperial system that many later dynasties used. Technically, though, it was not the first Chinese dynasty. It also fostered the development of community-minded ideas and beliefs. Together, these changes helped to create a widespread sense of a shared Chinese culture and identity for the first time.

The period is usually broken down into three stages:

• Western Han (206 BCE to 9 CE), with its capital at Chang’an
• Wang Mang (9 to 23 CE), also called Xin dynasty or Wang interregnum (pause between wars)
• Eastern Han (25 to 220 CE), with its capital at Luoyang

Qin Origins of the Han Imperial System

Prior to the third century, the region of China was broken into many smaller states. At the core were several small kingdoms, including the Han. These kingdoms had similarities in their language, values, and forms of political organization. Farther away, the states were more rural and used languages associated with the people of central Asia. The most significant of these rural people were the Xiongnu. This group was troubled by the growing populations of central China. In turn, those living in the Chinese communities or in states to the east also found the Xiongnu to be threatening.

Around the middle of the third century, the northwest kingdom of Qin briefly dominated the others. They had a powerful ruler, Qin Shi Huangdi (ruled 221 to 210 BCE). He created a military-style governing structure and chose leaders for the different states. The Qin state also adopted and spread ideas that helped it rule—especially Legalism, which emphasized obedience to the state. As a result, Qin’s rule extended beyond the core Chinese states to some neighboring societies, threatening the Xiongnu and other neighbors.

Following the death of its founder, the Qin dynasty crumbled. The people refused to be ruled in an authoritarian manner any longer. Two Qin officials then fought to take control. One, Liu Bang, later known as Emperor Gaozu, led the Han state after 206 BCE. This date marks the start of the Han dynasty. Emperor Gaozu fought and won a civil war. Four years later, Gaozu firmly controlled all of the central kingdoms of China, creating a single empire.

Consolidation

How did this new dynasty eventually come to be so important in Chinese history?

Early on, the Han rulers learned to mix the harsh but effective Qin dynasty Legalism with the softer ideas of Confucianism. This blended philosophy demanded obedience but also recognized that rulers should provide for their people. The Han emperors believed that humans were part of the natural world. In their view, agriculture and nature only thrived under good rulers. This all became the central idea of Han rule, known as the Mandate of Heaven. It said that the emperors ruled because they had fulfilled their ren. This means “benevolent duty” to the community. But it also said that heaven would punish bad rulers with crop failures or natural disasters. Under the Mandate of Heaven, poor leaders could be replaced.

The Mandate of Heaven was supported by a government led by Confucian scholars who were educated and effective. They created systems to communicate with each other, collect data, and report on problems. The result was a period of peace and wealth. Peasants could safely work the land, producing more food. Trade within the state expanded. The millet-growing regions of the north and rice-growing regions of the south could send food to each other. China’s own population exploded due to this stability and reliable food production.

Various economic measures were taken to expand state control. This included a state monopoly, or takeover, of iron and silk production in 119 BCE. Forty-nine foundries, or metal factories, produced many agricultural tools. Experimentation with iron led to the production of steel. Many farms were involved in silk production. Silk was so valuable that it could be used to pay taxes and buy horses. The Silk Road trade networks formed to reach Roman customers, 7,000 miles away. During the Eastern Han period, a form of paper made from boiled pieces of fabric, bark, and hemp was produced. The first Chinese dictionary (Shuowen jiezi) was gathered around 100 CE. It listed more than 9,000 characters and their meanings.

The Xiongnu and the Zhang Qiang mission

The Xiongu were roaming people of the central Asian grassland. They were a major problem for the Han. Likewise, the Xiongnu disliked the growth of China into their land. At first, the Han emperors tried to be friendly, even sending a princess to marry the Xiongnu leader and calling him an equal to the emperor. Making nice with these dangerous enemies seemed to be smarter than fighting them. The Xiongnu were important partners in the trading route that was the Silk Road. However, the two states had interests that were too different. Their leaders argued about territory, trade, and border raids.

Emperor Wudi ruled from 141 to 87 BCE. In 138 BCE, Wudi sent a diplomat named Zhang Qiang to central Asia to get horses and allies for fighting the Xiongnu. Zhang Qiang was captured by the Xiongnu and eventually escaped. Meanwhile, Wudi successfully fought to control territory from the Xiongnu. But after fighting, the two states returned to a more formal, diplomatic relationship. Wudi also expanded Chinese influence to parts of Korea and Southeast Asia.

Mang and Eastern Han

Emperor Wudi nearly drained the state’s bank to fight the Xiongnu. As a result, the government had to raise taxes. Many of the people of China then could not pay those taxes and still feed their families. At the same time, Wudi’s reign saw court eunuchs becoming more powerful than the Confucian scholars. The eunuchs were men meant to be specifically loyal to the emperor. They began to control the royal court, manipulating the emperor away from the increasingly unhappy people.

A Confucian-trained imperial minister named Wang Mang saw that this was the time to play the “Mandate of Heaven” card. He took the throne in 9 CE., wanting to address the suffering of the people. His ascension was supported by large numbers of angry, hungry peasants.

Mang tried to make changes in the state, but without great success. As a result, a Han successor to Wudi named Liu Xiu reclaimed the throne in 23 CE. Liu Xiu then became the Emperor Guang Wudi. He established his capital in Luoyang, east of the old capital. That’s why the second period of Han history, about two centuries long, is called the Eastern Han. It was culturally a very rich period, but it suffered from various political challenges.

At this time, the imperial court was becoming fractured. Disagreements broke out between the long-standing officials, the court eunuchs, and the families of empresses. Empresses were usually the daughters of powerful lords who married into the imperial family. These women brought more people to the court, who clashed with the eunuchs for power. Sometimes this led to actual fighting. More often, it fostered plotting and dishonest behavior.

This corruption angered the trained Confucian administrators in the provinces. They soon found it impossible to govern with a divided imperial court. It became harder to address local problems, so peasants suffered. Ultimately, the Han dynasty simply could not serve its people effectively. The imperial court’s chaos also prevented effective responses to natural disasters like floods and droughts. That was a fairly big no-no if your dynasty was trying to prove it held the Mandate of Heaven. The Han no longer seemed like good leaders.

The results of these problems will appear in a later era. But despite its issues, the Han dynasty was greatly important to future Chinese generations. The Han created an economic powerhouse that played a key role in the growth of trade across Afro-Eurasia. China’s borders expanded and a sense of Chinese identity developed for tens of millions of people.

Even today, many Chinese refer to themselves as Han rem, or Han people. That’s impressive for a dynasty that ended 1,800 years ago.