Background

Before the Mauryan Empire, the Indian subcontinent was fragmented into hundreds of kingdoms. Each was ruled by a powerful regional chief with his own small army. These various kingdoms were frequently at war with each other.

In 327 BCE, Alexander of Macedon, commonly known as Alexander the Great, and his troops entered India and overran the Punjab region. Alexander left after only two years, but his defeat of the established regional powers opened the opportunity for other groups to seize control.

The first of the newly powerful states to emerge was the kingdom of Magadha. It was the center of two religions: Buddhism and Jainism. Magadha had survived the Macedonian expansion by being just out of Alexander’s reach. Alexander reached the borders of the kingdom, but had then threatened to mutiny if forced to go any farther. After Alexander’s departure from India, the rulers of Magadha gained control of trade networks that passed through the Ganges valley, as well as sea routes to the Bay of Bengal. They used a mixture of military force and the power of religion to win people over to their side.

Formation

Not too long after Magadha gained control of the area from the Ganges to the Bay of Bengal, Chandragupta Maurya took control of the kingdom. His conquests transformed the Magadha kingdom into the Mauryan Empire. He expanded to the west, conquering northwestern India and Bactria (modern Afghanistan). Chandragupta Maurya successfully unified the divided communities of the northern and central Indian subcontinent under one empire.

Administration

Chandragupta ruled from 324 to 297 BCE and used his army to expand the empire and maintain control over it. In 305 BCE, Seleucus I Nicator, the emperor of the Seleucids, began to wage war against Chandragupta. Seleucus was one of several of Alexander’s generals who proclaimed themselves emperor after Alexander died unexpectedly with no heir. The Seleucid Empire stretched from the Mediterranean Sea all the way to northwestern India. They ruled for over three centuries after Alexander’s death, until 63 BCE. The Seleucids ruled a mighty empire, but Chandragupta raised an army to challenge their power. However, the Mauryan army consisted of 600,000 soldiers on foot, 30,000 soldiers on horseback, and 9,000 war elephants. Seleucus gave up his attacks and signed a peace treaty. He then gave his daughter to Chandragupta in marriage and left India.

Chandragupta adopted the Persian model of satrapies (provinces) to administer his empire. He also read and applied the teachings of Kautilya, one of his trusted advisors, in the book Arthashastra, which translates to “the science of politics”. The Mauryans used vast spy networks to collect intelligence for both internal and external security purposes.

Toward the end of Chandragupta’s reign, the Indian subcontinent was hit by famine. The emperor felt so badly for his starving subjects that he gave up the throne and fasted. His son Bindusara took over, and after Chandragupta died from his fast in 297 BCE he expanded the borders of the empire. Bindusara died in 272 BCE, and his son, Ashoka, became emperor in 268 BCE.

Ashoka further extended the boundaries of the Mauryan Empire through military force. After one particularly violent battle, however, he vowed to abandon war in favor of “conquest by dharma,” or good deeds. Dharma is a central concept in Buddhism, which sees good deeds as a path to enlightenment. For the rest of his reign, Ashoka focused on spreading Buddhist teachings throughout the empire. This would become one of Ashoka’s most lasting legacies.

If you’re an emperor, there are a lot of ways to get people to do what you want. Using swords and soldiers has always been a popular option, but Ashoka’s conquest by dharma was a revolutionary concept. This man was a warrior, known for his ferocity in battle. He was transformed by his conversion to Buddhism and his horror at the death and suffering he caused. The new, gentler Ashoka promised to never seek military conquest again and instead devoted the rest of his rule to spreading the Buddhist faith and seeing to the welfare of his people. He personally traveled the empire spreading his message, and he erected Buddhist structures across the empire. One of the most significant aspects of his conquest by dharma was his support of Buddhist missionaries. Ashoka sent missionaries to neighboring regions, helping begin the spread of Buddhism far outside the Indian subcontinent.

Like all empires, the Mauryan Empire could not last forever, and indeed it only survived Ashoka by fifty years. But three centuries later, the Gupta Empire emerged in the same region. Sri Gupta founded this empire between 240 and 280 CE. His successors expanded their territory through conquest and marriage. Under Chandragupta II, who reigned from 380 to 415 CE, the Gupta Empire extended across northern India. Like Ashoka, Chandragupta II made Pataliputra the capital of his empire and centralized the government there. He used tribute money from allies to fund government projects and salaries. However, he did not rely on a network of spies as the Mauryans had. He let regions make their own decisions about administration and local governance. The Gupta Empire was a golden age in India, marked by peace and public safety as the arts and sciences flourished.

Religion

India’s three major belief systems are Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism. All three share similar practices and ideals, including nonviolence, renouncing all earthly possessions, fasting, and vegetarianism.

Religion played a significant role in the running of the Mauryan Empire. The famine that struck India during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya had been predicted by a Jain spiritual advisor. When this prediction came true, Chandragupta embraced the beliefs of Jainism and retreated to a life of fasting.

As mentioned above, after Ashoka gained control of the empire, he converted to Buddhism and devoted his energies to spreading the religion. Ashoka is perhaps best known for his construction of pillars that were inscribed with edicts (proclamations), and places of meditation and importance in the life of the Buddha called stupas. The pillars feature the teachings of both Ashoka and the Buddha and concentrate on respecting all life. Here are some examples:

“Rock Edict VII, King Priyadarsi wishes members of all faiths to live everywhere in his kingdom. For they all seek mastery of the senses and purity of mind. …Kalinga Edict II, King Priyadarsi says: …All men are my children. Just as I seek the welfare and happiness of my own children in this world and the next, I seek the same things for all men. Unconquered peoples along the borders of my dominions may wonder what my disposition is toward them. My only wish with respect to them is that they should not fear me, but trust me; that they should expect only happiness from me, not misery; that they should understand further that I will forgive them for offenses which can be forgiven; that they should be induced by my example to practice Dharma; and that they should attain happiness in this world and the next” (Ashoka, 51-53).

These were the public pronouncements of a man who, at the beginning of his rule, had been known for his cruelty and deadly conquests. Ashoka’s conversion had lasting effects on how he ruled, on the Indian subcontinent, and in the transformation of Buddhism into a world religion.

Trade

Regional and long-distance trade flourished under the rule of India’s ancient empires. Chandragupta Maurya established a single currency across India. He also set up a network of regional governors and administrators, and a civil service to provide justice and security for merchants, farmers, and traders. During Ashoka’s reign, the government built major roadways, and trade with other regions, including Persia, increased. India’s major exports included silk, textiles, and spices.

Women and society

Much of Indian society was governed by a strict class system, known as the caste system. This divided people by their family’s professions, location, and background. People’s caste often determined their rights and responsibilities.

Caste played a large role in shaping the lives of women. Women in both Mauryan and Gupta India were most often confined to roles as wives and mothers. Women’s legal and property rights were restricted, though many women maintained some rights to hold property, such as bride gifts from their families and husbands. Most upper-caste Indian women were secluded in the home, meaning they often had less freedom of movement than women from lower castes. Since they needed to work outside the home to provide for their family, women of lower castes often enjoyed more freedom of movement than those in the nobility. Many of these women worked in the textile industry and contributed to both the family and imperial economy. Their work generated revenue for their families, and traded their surplus goods at market. The labor of these women textile workers produced many of the export goods of both empires.

As Buddhism spread throughout India under the reign of Ashoka, many women joined Buddhist nunneries. Buddhists sought to escape the caste system by teaching how a person could overcome desire and achieve personal salvation through enlightenment. These teachings were appealing to many women living under the restrictions of India’s caste system.

Decline/fall

The Gupta Empire ended with the invasion of pastoralist tribes from Central Asia, at the end of the fifth century CE. The age of empires in India came to an end after the fall of the Gupta. India remained divided into several separate regional kingdoms until the sixteenth century CE, when the Mughal Empire conquered the subcontinent.