Human geography of the Pacific, c. 1200

Oceania was settled by humans over a long period beginning 40,000 to 60,000 years ago. Scientists still argue about these numbers. Scholars also continue to debate whether this first wave of migrations was intentional or unintentional.

It is possible that early humans island-hopped from southeast Asia to the coast of New Guinea using early sailing technologies. Once there, people developed sophisticated agricultural techniques. They built large communities.

Some people then crossed the straits that separate New Guinea from Australia. Those people encountered new environments. Few plants and animals in Australia could be domesticated, so people became expert hunters and gatherers.  

People in Southeast Asia, Taiwan, and the south Pacific developed new sailing technologies. These technologies included learning to read wind and ocean currents and building large canoes with sails. This allowed them to travel deeper into the Pacific Ocean. Over time, they populated the outermost islands of Oceania.  

These communities formed three large groups. Each was made up of peoples who were geographically spread out, but who shared culture and language. The first was the Melanesian group, which made up the densely-populated region of New Guinea and a large number of closely packed islands. North of Melanesia were the Micronesian group. They were more spread out, based on islands including the Mariana and Majōl (Marshall) chains. To the east, Polynesian people gradually populated very far-flung islands. Larger communities were formed in the Hawaiian chain and in Aotearoa (New Zealand). The Māori people of Aotearoa spoke (and still speak) a Polynesian language.

Organizing communities and states

Oceania was inhabited by culturally linked communities. The distances between islands meant that many societies were somewhat isolated, but there was ongoing trade. Many communities had complex political and social organizations.

People in most communities in this region belonged to family groups. Families were important for making decisions. In many societies, families were organized into bigger units such as clans and states. Australian Aboriginal peoples developed an elaborate system of kinship and social rules. These societies were often egalitarian in terms of opportunities to become political leaders, but only if you were male. There were few established political hierarchies such as chiefs or kings. Hierarchies seemed to be mostly contained to religious or spiritual matters, or those that related to the Dreaming. The Dreaming is the spiritual philosophy of the Aboriginal peoples. It encompasses their history of the universe, the Earth, the present, and the future.

The Māori society of Aotearoa migrated from nearby islands. They divided the land amongst several states, which were composed of families. Each state had several important chiefs who came together in a collective decision- making group. Still, as everywhere in the world, there was conflict both within and between different Māori states.  

The Hawaiian Islands were also settled by Polynesian migrants. Hawaiian society resembled that of Aotearoa in many ways. They were organized into small kingdoms. But the extended family, the village, and the clan were usually the most important political institutions. Both Hawaiian and Māori societies lacked written languages, but each had rich oral histories.

Gender relations varied among these communities. Women in Polynesian societies may have been closer to full equality with men than any other part of the world. They could be very independent. Some women held leadership positions. This was less true in other societies of the Pacific. But the most important aspect of gender roles in this region was the complementary relationship of men and women. People believed that men and women each had their own spheres of influence. Both were needed for a family or community to be successful. As in many parts of the world, some Pacific societies had (and continue to have) their own conceptions of gender. Samoan society have more than two genders. The third gender is biologically male but perform roles that are historically seen as being more feminine.

Ideas were broadly shared because the people of Oceania traded with each other across vast distances. Trading connections helped communities to keep up to date with new technology.

A world apart?

Oceania is treated as separate from other parts of the world before the modern era. Yet this may not be true. Many people who settled Pacific regions remained in contact with the Asian societies from which they originated. There is also evidence of links to other regions.

For example, the language of the people of Madagascar has a strong relationship to Polynesian languages. This may not be evidence of sustained contact, however. It could show a common origin in Southeast Asia. In another example, DNA evidence from several islands suggests that migrants from South America may have joined Polynesians. This most likely took place in the 1100s and 1200s CE. This evidence emerged very recently. 

Should we think of the Pacific as a zone of interaction and exchange? It’s probably too early for a final analysis. But it’s clear we can no longer rest on older narratives that ignored this global zone.

¹Jerry Bentley and Herbert Zeigler, later joined by Heather Streets-Salter.