Primary Sources: Transformation of Beliefs c. 1450 to 1750
Sources compiled by Eman M. Elshaikh
A collection of primary sources on changing belief systems, political dimensions of religion, and impact on sectarian struggles.
Introduction to this collection
This collection explores changing belief systems, from the Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Counter- Reformation to devotional movements like Sufism and the Bhakti movement. It also looks at the political dimensions of religion, from Christian Europe to the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Courts, all of which were entangled in sectarian struggles.
Guiding question to think about as you read the documents: How and why did belief systems change during the period from c. 1450 to 1750?
WHP Primary Source Punctuation Key
When you read through these primary source collections, you might notice some unusual punctuation like this: . . . and [ ] and ( ). Use the table below to help you understand what this punctuation means.
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ELLIPSES words … words |
Something has been removed from the quoted sentences by an editor. |
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BRACKETS [word] or word[s] |
Something has been added or changed by an editor. These edits are to clarify or help readers. |
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PARENTHESES (words) |
The original author of the primary source wanted to clarify, add more detail, or make an additional comment in parentheses. |
Contents
Source 1 – Erasmus’ In Praise of Folly, 1509 (1:00)
Source 2 – Martin Luther’s open letter to the Christian nobility, 1520 (4:40)
Source 3 – Council of Trent, 1563 (8:20)
Source 4 – Father Monserrate on his journey to the court of Akbar, 1591 (11:55)
Source 5 – Letters Between Sultan Selim and Shah Ismail, 1514 (15:10)
Source 6 – Guru Granth Sahib, 1604 (21:20)
Source 7 – Turkish Letters, 1589 (25:05)
Source 8 – Miniature of devshirme gathering process, sixteenth century (28:50)
Source 9 – Hindu and Muslim scholars discuss the Mahabaratha, 1599 (30:00)
Source 10 – Jahinger’s memoirs, 1624 (31:30)
Source 11 – The Mystical Writings of ‘A’ishah al-Ba‘uniyah, c. 1500 (35:45)
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Timestamps are in the source title. To locate a specific source in the audio file:
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Source 1 – Erasmus’ In Praise of Folly, 1509 (1:00)
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Title In Praise of Folly |
Date and location 1509, Netherlands |
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Source type Primary source - satire |
Author Erasmus of Rotterdam (1466–1536) |
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Description Erasmus was a famous Dutch philosopher, Catholic priest, and scholar who wrote in classical Latin. This satirical piece was partly influenced by his friendship with Sir Thomas More in England. In this piece, which is written in a scholarly style and uses Greek references, Erasmus attacks superstitious beliefs, such as a belief in ghost stories or certain miracles. Erasmus uses the figure of the fool, a common trope (a theme that is important or repeated), to voice his criticisms indirectly. |
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Key vocabulary trope beguile delude pious procure |
arrears purgatory perjury debauchery |
Guiding question
How and why did belief systems change during the period from c. 1450 to 1750?
Excerpt
To this same class of fools belong those who beguile themselves with the silly but pleasing notion that if they look upon a picture or image of St. Christopher … they will not die that day; or that he who salutes an image of St. Barbara with the proper form of address will come back from battle safe; or that one who approaches St. Erasmus on certain days with wax candles and prayers will soon be rich …
And what shall I say of those who comfortably delude themselves with imaginary pardons for their sins, and who measure the time in purgatory with an hourglass into years, months, days, and hours, with all the precision of a mathematical table? There are plenty, too, who relying upon certain magical little certificates and prayers,—which some pious imposter devised either in fun or for the benefit of this pocket,—believe that they may procure riches, honor, future happiness, health, perpetual prosperity, long life, a lusty old age,—nay, in the end, a seat at the right hand of Christ in heaven; but as for this last, it matters not how long it be deferred: they will content themselves with the joys of heaven only when they must finally surrender the pleasures of this world, to which they lovingly cling.
[They] think they can clean up the Augean stable1 of a lifetime, once and for all, by sacrificing a single coin from their ill-gotten gains. They flatter themselves that all sorts of perjury, debauchery, drunkenness, quarrels, bloodshed … and treason can be compounded for by contract and so adjusted that, having paid off their arrears, they can begin a new score …
These silly things which even I, Folly, am almost ashamed of, are approved not only by the common herd but even by the teachers of religion.
Citation
Robinson, James Harvey. Readings in European History Volume 2: From the Opening of the Protestant Revolt to the Present Day. Boston: Ginn & Co., 1906.
1 This phrase is from a Greek myth about Hercules, and it refers to a place that is very corrupt or filthy.
Source 2 – Martin Luther’s open letter to the Christian nobility, 1520 (4:40)
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Title Martin Luther’s open letter to the Christian nobility |
Date and location 1520, Wittenberg, Germany |
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Source type Primary source - letter |
Author Martin Luther (1483–1546) |
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Description Martin Luther (1483–1546), a professor at the University of Wittenberg, is most famous for his 1517 “Ninety-Five Theses” against indulgences,2 which set off the Protestant Reformation. Luther’s 1517 theses did not present a final argument against Catholicism. However, they were the beginning of Luther’s much stronger challenge to the Catholic Church. This document shows that Luther had objections far greater than the use of indulgences. |
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Key vocabulary temporal sacraments err timid |
allayed wantonness communion |
Guiding question
How and why did belief systems change during the period from c. 1450 to 1750?
Excerpt
To His Most Illustrious and Mighty Imperial Majesty, and to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation …
Where sin is, there is no escape from punishment; as St. Gregory also writes that we are indeed all equal …They assume for themselves sole authority … [that] the pope, whether he be a bad man or a good man, cannot err in matters of faith; and yet … it may well happen that the pope and his followers are wicked men, and no true Christians, not taught of God, not having true understanding. On the other hand, an ordinary man may have true understanding; why then should we not follow him? Has not the pope erred many times? Who would help Christendom when the pope errs, if we were not to believe another, who had the Scriptures on his side, more than the pope? …
Besides, if we are all priests, as was said above, and all have one faith, one Gospel, one sacrament, why should we not also have the power to test and judge what is correct or incorrect in matters of faith? …
… when the pope acts contrary to the Scriptures, it is our duty to stand by the Scriptures, to reprove him, and to constrain him …
Let us, therefore, hold fast to this: No Christian authority can do anything against Christ … I hope that the false, lying terror with which the Romans have this long time made our conscience timid and stupid, has been allayed. They, like all of us, are subject to the temporal sword; they have no power to interpret the Scriptures by mere authority, without learning; they have no authority to prevent a council or, in sheer wantonness, to pledge it, bind it, or take away its liberty; but if they do this, they are in truth in the communion of Antichrist and of the devil, and have nothing at all of Christ except the name.
Citation
Luther, Martin. Works of Martin Luther: With Introductions and Notes. Philadelphia: A.J. Holman Company, 1915
2 In the teaching of the Catholic Church, an indulgence is one way to reduce the amount of punishment for sins. Luther was writing against abuse of this by Church leaders.
Source 3 – Council of Trent, 1563 (8:20)
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Title Decrees from the Council of Trent |
Date and location 1545–1563, Trento, Italy |
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Source type Primary source - religious decree |
Author Catholic Clergy |
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Description The Council of Trent met twenty-five times from 1545–1563, where the assembled officials debated how Catholicism should be interpreted and by whom. This document, expressing the decrees of this Council, illustrates the Catholic Counter-Reformation, which was a response to the Protestant Reformation. |
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Key vocabulary intercession invocation reverence efficacy kindred |
relics anathema ordination sacraments |
Guiding question
How and why did belief systems change during the period from c. 1450 to 1750?
Excerpt
[Our] Lord Jesus Christ, when about to ascend from earth to heaven, left priests, his own vicars [bishop’s deputies], as leaders and judges … This holy Council enjoins on all bishops and others who are charged with teaching, that they instruct the faithful diligently concerning the intercession and invocation of the saints, the honor paid to relics, and the legitimate use of images. …
If anyone says that the New Testament does not provide for a distinct, visible priesthood; or that this priesthood has not any power … but is only an office and bare ministry of preaching and gospel … let him be anathema.
If anyone says that in the Catholic Church there is not a hierarchy instituted by divine ordination, consisting of bishops, priests, and ministers, let him be anathema.
If any one says that the sacraments … were not all instituted by Jesus Christ, our Lord; or that they are more or less than seven: baptism, confirmation, the eucharist [holy communion], penance, [anointing of the sick], orders, and matrimony; or even that any of these seven is not truly and properly a sacrament; let him be anathema.
In order that the faithful may approach and receive the sacraments with greater reverence and devotion of mind, this holy Council enjoins on all bishops that … they shall first explain, in a manner suited to the capacity of those who receive them, the efficacy and use of those sacraments … even in the vernacular tongue, if need be …
[Those] who undertake the office of bishop should understand what their portion is, and comprehend that they are called, not to their own convenience, not to riches or luxury, but to labors and cares, for the glory of God … the rest of the faithful also will be more easily excited to religion and innocence if they shall see those who are set over them not fixing their thoughts on the things of this world, but on the salvation of souls and on their heavenly country … It strictly forbids them, moreover, to strive to enrich their own kindred or domestics out of the revenues of the Church.
Citation
Robinson, James Harvey. Readings in European History Volume 2: From the Opening of the Protestant Revolt to the Present Day. Boston: Ginn & Co., 1906.
Source 4 – Father Monserrate on his journey to the court of Akbar, 1591 (11:55)
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Title Father Monserrate on his journey to the court of Akbar |
Date and location 1591, Mughal Empire |
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Source type Primary source – travel memoir |
Author Antonio Monserrate (1536–1600) |
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Description Antonio Monserrate (1536–1600), a Portuguese priest, was a part of the first Jesuit mission to the court of the Emperor Akbar (1542–1605). Akbar was known for being very interested in different religions and for proposing his own syncretic religion (made up of different religions, philosophies, or ideas). |
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Key vocabulary retained devised |
ingenious |
Guiding question
How and why did belief systems change during the period from c. 1450 to 1750?
Excerpt
The King was always pondering in his mind which nation has retained the true religion of God … He devised the following ingenious method of settling the problem. On a certain night he ordered all the nobles, the religious leaders both of Hindus and [Muslims], and the Christian priests to be summoned to the inner palace. He placed the nobles in lines according to their rank … and then asked them questions on various points …
At the conclusion of this discussion the King briefly addressed all who had been present. He said, “I perceive that there are varying customs and beliefs of varying religious paths. For the teachings of the Hindus, the [Muslims], the [Parsis],3 the Jews and the Christians are all different. But the followers of each religion regard the institutions of their own religion as better than those of any other. Not only so, but they strive to convert the rest to their own way of belief. If they refuse to be converted, they not only despise them, but also regard them for this very reason as their enemies. And this causes me to feel many serious doubts … I desire that on appointed days the books of all the religious laws be brought forward, and that the [scholars] meet together and hold discussions, so that I may hear them, and that each one may determine which is the truest and mightiest religion.” …
However, the others gradually ceased coming to the appointed place, and the Christians alone gladly obeyed the King’s desire … However, the priests began to suspect that he was intending to found a new religion with matter taken from all the existing systems; and hence they also gradually withdrew themselves from the meetings. For at this time the King was daily showing greater and greater favor to the Hindus, at whose request he had forbidden the sale of the buffalo-flesh.
Citation
Monserrate, Antonio, S. N. Banerjee, and John S. Hoyland. The Commentary of Father Monserrate, S.J., on His Journey to the Court of Akbar. London: H. Milford, Oxford University Press, 1922.
3 Parsis or Parsees are an ethnoreligious group of the Indian subcontinent whose religion is Zoroastrianism.
Source 5 – Letters Between Sultan Selim and Shah Ismail, 1514 (15:10)
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Title Letters Between Sultan Selim and Shah Ismail |
Date and location 1514, Ottoman and Safavid Empires |
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Source type Primary source – royal letters |
Author Sultan Selim (1470–1520) and Shah Ismail (1487–1524) |
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Description This selection features letters between the Ottoman Sultan Selim I and his Safavid rival, Shah Ismail. The rivalry between these two empires also became a sectarian rivalry, as the Ottoman rulers were Sunni Muslims, while the Safavid rulers were Shi’i Muslims. Selim I, having won the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514 against the Safavids, partly due to the use of gunpowder, sent this letter demanding that the Safavids concede to the Ottomans. |
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Key vocabulary proclamations devious countenance sedition patronage vigor concord |
umbrage vain heretical infidel opium amputations |
Guiding question
How and why did belief systems change during the period from c. 1450 to 1750?
Excerpt
LETTER FROM Sultan SELIM TO Shah ISMAIL c. 1514
God’s blessings upon the best of his creatures, Muhammad, his family, and his companions all … This missive which is stamped with the seal of victory and which is, like inspiration descending from the heavens, witness to the verse “We never chastise until We send forth a Messenger” [Quran 17:5] has been graciously issued by our most glorious majesty—we who are the Caliph of God Most High in this world, far and wide … slayer of the wicked and the infidel, guardian of the noble and the pious; the warrior in the Path, the defender of the Faith; the champion, the conqueror; the lion, son and grandson of the lion; standard-bearer of justice and righteousness, Sultan Selim Shah, son of Sultan Bayezid, son of Sultan Muhammad Khan—and is addressed to the ruler of the kingdom of the Persians, the possessor of the land of tyranny and perversion, the captain of the vicious, the chief of the malicious …
It has been heard repeatedly that you have subjected the upright community of Muhammad (Prayers and salutations upon its founder!) to your devious will, that you have undermined the firm foundation of the Faith, that you have unfurled the banner of oppression in the cause of aggression, that you no longer uphold the commandments and prohibitions of the Divine Law, that you have incited your abominable Shi`i faction to unsanctified sexual union and to the shedding of innocent blood4 that like they “Who listen to falsehood and consume the unlawful” [Quran 5:42] you have given ear to idle deceitful words …
But “Religion is Counsel,” and should you turn the countenance of submission … and should you consider your lands and their people part of the well-protected Ottoman state, then shall you be granted our royal favor and our imperial patronage.
LETTER FROM Shah ISMAIL TO Sultan SELIM c. 1514
May his godly majesty, the refuge of Islam, the might of the kingdom, he upon whom God looks with favor, the champion of the sultanate and of the state, the hero of the faith and of the earth, Sultan Selim Shah (God grant him immortal state and eternal happiness!) accept this affectionate greeting and this friendly letter, considering it a token of our good will. Now to begin: Your honored letters have arrived one after another, for “No sooner has a thing doubled than it has tripled.” Their contents, although indicative of hostility, are stated with boldness and vigor. The latter gives us much enjoyment and pleasure … [W]hen our royal troops passed through the lands of [Anatolia] … complete concord and friendship was shown on both sides. …
The intention of our inaction in this regard is twofold: (1) Most of the inhabitants of the land of Rum are followers of our forefathers (May God the All-Forgiving King have mercy upon them!). (2) We have always loved the ghazi- titled Ottoman house5 and we do not wish the outbreak of sedition and turmoil once again as in the time of Timur. Why should we then take umbrage at these provocations? We shall not. The mutual hostility of kings is verily an ancient rite. …
Nevertheless, there is no cause for improper words: indeed, those vain, heretical amputations are the mere fabrications of the opium-clouded minds of certain secretaries and scribes … In all friendship we say do what you will.
Bitter experience has taught that in this world of trial He who falls upon the house of Ali always falls …
“No soul laden bears the load of another.” [Quran 6:164; 53:38] When war becomes inevitable, hesitation and delay must be set aside, and one must think on that which is to come. Farewell.
Citation
Halsall, Paul. Fordham Internet Modern History Sourcebook. (public domain/copy-permitted)
4 This is in reference to Shi’i practices like temporary marriage. The shedding of blood could be a reference to Shi’i violence against Sunnis at Tabriz and elsewhere.
5 The Ottomans saw themselves as ghazi, or religious warriors.
Source 6 – Guru Granth Sahib, 1604 (21:20)
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Title Guru Granth Sahib |
Date and location 1604, India |
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Source type Primary source – scripture |
Author Multiple Sikh gurus |
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Description The Guru Granth Sahib is a central Sikh scripture, composed by multiple Sikh gurus. Sikhism is a syncretic religion (made up of different religions, philosophies, or ideas), and this scripture contains the teachings of Hindu Bhakti and Sufi Muslim poets in the form of poetic statements and hymns. It adds its own commentary on these diverse traditions and brings them together in unique ways. |
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Key vocabulary delusion conceit |
guru hymn |
Guiding question
How and why did belief systems change during the period from c. 1450 to 1750?
Excerpt
There are five prayers and five times of day for prayer; the five have five names.
Let the first be truthfulness, the second honest living, and the third charity in the Name of God.
Let the fourth be good will to all, and the fifth the praise of the Lord.
Repeat the prayer of good deeds, and then, you may call yourself a Muslim.
O Nanak, the false obtain falsehood, and only falsehood.
(SGGS p141)
It is difficult to be called a Muslim; if one is truly a Muslim, then he may be called one.
First, let him savor the religion of the Prophet as sweet; then, let his pride of his possessions be scraped away.
Becoming a true Muslim, a disciple of the faith of Mohammed, let him put aside the delusion of death and life.
As he submits to God’s Will, and surrenders to the Creator, he is rid of selfishness and conceit.
And when, O Nanak, he is merciful to all beings, only then shall he be called a Muslim. (SGGS p141)
You keep your fasts to please Allah, while you murder other beings for pleasure.
You look after your own interests, and so not see the interests of others. What good is your word?
O Qazi,6 the One Lord is within you, but you do not behold Him by thought or contemplation.
You do not care for others, you are a religious fanatic, and your life is of no account at all.
Your holy scriptures say that Allah is True, and that he is neither male nor female.
But you gain nothing by reading and studying, O mad-man, if you do not gain the understanding in your heart.
Allah is hidden in every heart; reflect upon this in your mind.
The One Lord is within both Hindu and Muslim; Kabeer7 proclaims this out loud. (SGGS p483)
Citation
6 A Qadi or Qazi is an Arabic term referring to an Islamic scholar or specifically an Islamic judge of a Sharia court.
7 Kabir was a fifteenth-century Indian mystic poet who influenced Hinduism’s Bhakti movement and Sikhism. He was born into a Muslim family, but he was taught by a Hindu Bhakti teacher, Ramananda. He was critical of organized religion but is celebrated by Hindus, Sikhs, and Muslims.
Source 7 – Turkish Letters, 1589 (25:05)
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Title The Life and Letters of Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq |
Date and location 1589, Ottoman Empire |
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Source type Primary source - letters |
Author Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq (1522–1592) |
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Description This passage is taken from a Flemish ambassador to the Ottoman Empire who recorded his travel memoirs. Here, he discusses his experience in the Province of Budin, in modern-day Central Europe, and his observations of the janissary corps. The janissaries were forcibly conscripted from largely non-Turkish, non-Muslim regions of the empire. These conscripted soldiers formed powerful, elite infantry units loyal to the Ottoman Sultan. It was the first modern standing army in Europe and held a great deal of political influence. |
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Key vocabulary conscripted inclemency disaffection depose |
infantry garrison muskets cavalry |
Guiding question
How and why did belief systems change during the period from c. 1450 to 1750?
Excerpt
At Buda I made my first acquaintance with the Janissaries; this is the name by which the Turks call the infantry of the royal guard. The Turkish state has 12,000 of these troops when the corps is at its full strength. They are scattered through every part of the empire, either to garrison the forts against the enemy, or to protect the Christians and Jews …
To tell you the truth, if I had not been told beforehand that they were Janissaries, I should, without hesitation, have taken them for members of some order of Turkish monks, or brethren of some Muslim college. Yet these are the famous Janissaries, whose approach inspires terror everywhere …
The Turks take great care to have their soldiers in good health and protected against the inclemency of the weather … as the Janissaries are lightly equipped, and generally do not fight at close quarters, but at a distance with muskets …
When the cavalry had ridden past, they were followed by a long procession of Janissaries, but few of whom carried any arms except their regular weapon the musket. They were dressed in uniforms of almost the same shape and color, so that you might recognize them to be the slaves, and as it were the household of the same master …
What the Sultan dreaded most in the world was secret disaffection among the Janissaries; disaffection which would lie hidden for a time, and then break out at a critical moment when he had no power to counteract it. His alarm is certainly not without foundation; for while there are great advantages to a Sovereign in the possession of a standing army, there are on the other hand, if proper precautions [are not] taken, considerable disadvantages. The greatest of all is that the soldiers have it in their power to depose their Sovereign and place another on the throne; and the fear of a revolution of this kind must be ever present to the minds of the masters. Striking instances might be quoted of Sovereigns who were dethroned by their own troops; but it is by no means impossible to guard against such occurrences.
Citation
Busbecq, Ogier Ghislain de, Charles Thornton Forster, and Francis Henry Blackburne Daniell. The Life and Letters of Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq. London: C. K. Paul, 1881..
Source 8 – Miniature of devshirme gathering process, sixteenth century (28:50)
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Title Miniature from the Book of Suleiman |
Date and location c. 1588, Ottoman Empire |
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Source type Primary source – royal document |
Author Ottoman artists |
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Description These illustrations are from the Book of Suleiman, a royal document which catalogues Suleiman the Magnificent’s life and achievements. The central purpose of this manuscript was to present an ideal public image for Sultan Suleiman and his court. It focuses on portraying Suleiman as a military figure, but also serving justice as a ruler. This particular image from the book depicts the devshirme, the gathering process by which young boys were conscripted into the janissary corps. |
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Guiding question
How and why did belief systems change during the period from c. 1450 to 1750?
Excerpt
Citation
Beg, Ali Amir. “Illustration of the registration of Christian boys for the devşirme, (‘tribute in blood’). Ottoman miniature painting, 1558.” © The Picture Art Collection / Alamy Stock Photo.
Source 9 – Hindu and Muslim scholars discuss the Mahabaratha, 1599 (30:00)
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Title Hindu and Muslim scholars discuss the Mahabaratha |
Date and location c. 1599, Mughal Empire in India |
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Source type Primary source – royal document |
Author Mughal artists and scholars |
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Description The Maktab Khana (meaning “House of Translation”) was a bureau of records and translation founded by the Mughal Emperor Akbar in 1574. Emperor Akbar commissioned translations and illustrations of major Indian and Arabic texts from Sanskrit and Arabic into Persian. This image is likely the first illustration in the 1598–99 Razmnama, which was the Persian translation of the Hindu Sanskrit epic the Mahabaratha. Muslim scholars, who can be seen in the upper half of the painting, and upper-class Hindu Brahmans, who can be seen in the lower half, collaborated to translate the epic into Persian, the official language of the Mughal Empire. |
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Guiding question
How and why did belief systems change during the period from c. 1450 to 1750?
Excerpt
Citation
“Hindu and Muslim Scholars Translate the Mahabharata from Sanskrit into Persian.” In Razmnama (Book of War), 1598–99. Courtesy of the Free Library of Philadelphia, Rare Book Department.
Source 10 – Jahinger’s memoirs, 1624 (31:30)
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Title The Memoirs of Jahinger |
Date and location 1625, Mughal India |
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Source type Primary source – royal memoir |
Author Mughal Emperor Nur-ud-din Muhammad Jahangir (1569–1627) |
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Description Jahinger was a Mughal Emperor who reigned from 1605 to 1627. This excerpt of his memoirs describes the changing views toward non-Muslims in the Mughal Empire. Jahinger’s father Akbar proposed syncretic belief systems and sought the counsel of Hindus and other religious groups. In contrast, Jahinger and his descendents were far less tolerant. Jahinger’s approach continued to characterize Mughal views of non-Muslim communities. |
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Key vocabulary erected proscribed providence exalted |
station indulgence deity idolatry |
Guiding question
How and why did belief systems change during the period from c. 1450 to 1750?
Excerpt
My father always associated with the learned of every creed and religion, especially with Pandits and the learned of India …
The professors of various faiths had room in the broad expanse of his incomparable sway. This was different from the practice in other realms, for in Persia, there is room for Shias only, and in Turkey, India, and Turan there is room for Sunnis only. …
[During my reign] at the city of [Varanasi] a temple had been erected … The principal idol in this temple had on its head a tiara … enriched with jewels … It was the belief of these [non-Muslims] that a dead Hindu … when laid before this idol would be restored to life. As I could not possibly give credit to such a pretense, I employed a confidential person to ascertain the truth; and, as I justly supposed, the whole was detected to be [a deception] …
[so I destroyed] this temple … and on the spot, with the very same materials, I erected the great mosque, because the very name of Islam was proscribed at [Varanasi], and with God’s blessing it is my design, if I live, to fill it with true believers.
On this subject I must however acknowledge that having on one occasion asked my father the reason why he had forbidden any one to prevent or interfere with the building of these [places] of idolatry, his reply was … “I find myself a [powerful] monarch, the shadow of God upon earth. I have seen that he bestows the blessings of his gracious providence upon all his creatures without distinction. [I would fail to] discharge the duties of my exalted station, were I to withhold my compassion and indulgence from any of those entrusted to my charge. With all of the human race, with all of God’s creatures, I am at peace: why then should I … be the cause of … aggression to any one? Besides, are not five parts in six of mankind either Hindus or aliens to the faith; and were I to be governed by motives of the kind suggested in your inquiry, what alternative can I have but to put them all to death! I have thought it therefore my wisest plan to let these men alone … [they] are usefully engaged, either in the pursuits of science or the arts, or of improvements for the benefit of mankind, and have in numerous instances arrived at the highest distinctions in the state, there being, indeed, to be found in this city men of every description, and of every religion on the face of the earth.”
Citation
Jahangir, Emperor of Hindustan, Alexander Rogers, and Henry Beveridge. The Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri; or, Memoirs of Jahangir. Translated by Alexander Rogers. Edited by Henry Beveridge. London: Royal Asiatic Society, 1909.
Source 11 – The Mystical Writings of ‘A’ishah al-Ba‘uniyah, c. 1500 (35:45)
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Title The Mystical Writings of ‘A’ishah al-Ba‘uniyah |
Date and location c. 1500, Ottoman Empire (modern-day Syria) |
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Source type Primary source – poem |
Author A’ishah al-Ba‘uniyah (d. 1516) |
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Description This excerpt features verses written by a female Sufi master and poet from modern-day Syria. She is one of few medieval female Muslim Sufi mystics to have penned her own views, and she most likely wrote more Arabic works than any other woman at her time in her society. In these poems, she explores Sufi themes like devotion and surrender to God, God’s attributes, longing for God, and losing the self in God’s oneness. |
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Key vocabulary invocation rapture |
abiding |
Guiding question
How and why did belief systems change during the period from c. 1450 to 1750?
Excerpt
From Selections on the Fundamentals of Stations
God looked with favor on a folk,
and they stayed away
from worldly fortunes.
In love and devotion,
they worshipped Him;
they surrendered themselves, their aim was true.
In love with Him, they gave themselves up
and passed away from existence,
nothing left behind.
So He took pity
and revealed to them
His He-ness,
And they lived again
gazing at that living face
when His eternal life appeared. …
From The Emanation of Grace and the Gathering of the Union
With noble invocation of the One, Creator,
refresh a heart melted by longing.
Singer, lift up His praise and repeat it;
Saqi [drink-giver], pass round His love’s ancient wine.
For life has passed in desire to drink it,
though I never won a taste, no, not a taste.
See how it revived impassioned souls
brought to ruin and destruction.
See how it made them disappear
from all the world since they fell for it.
See how it drove them love-mad and crazy,
shattered by rapture and craving.
See how it melted hearts now flowing down
from tear ducts of large round eyes.
See how it brought a dead lover back to life;
O, how many strong lovers have died!
It is a wine ever appearing
to man as the rising sun,
And when its bouquet spreads forth,
it covers all the world and existence.
When will I win its quenching draught
passing me away in that abiding beauty?
Citation
Homerin, Th. Emil. “Living Love: The Mystical Writings of ‘A±’ishah al-Ba≠‘u≠n|yah (d. 922/1516).” Mamlūk Studies Review VII (2003): 211-34.
Eman M. Elshaikh
Eman M. Elshaikh is a writer, researcher, and teacher who has taught K-12 and undergraduates in the United States and in the Middle East and written for many different audiences. She teaches writing at the University of Chicago, where she also completed her master’s in social sciences and is currently pursuing her PhD. She was previously a World History Fellow at Khan Academy, where she worked closely with the College Board to develop curriculum for AP World History.
Image credits
This work is licensed under CC BY 4.0 except for the following:
Cover: The Battle of Kahlenberg (Battle of Vienna) at the Second Siege of Vienna - painting by Frans Geffels - 184 x 272 cms Vienna Historisches Museum der Stadt. © Leemage/Corbis via Getty Images.