Introduction

Latin America is the region of the Western Hemisphere south of the United States. Latin America is diverse. Some countries have large indigenous communities; others have majorities of African origin, while others are of European origin. The region’s predominant “ethnicity” is a mixture of all of them, called “mestizo.” People of the Americas identify themselves by nationality. The terms “Latina” and “Latino” apply only to people from Latin America living in the United States.

Latin American countries share commonalities, including the hierarchical structure of society. The colonial plan for the Spanish, Portuguese, and French was to be at the top of Latin American society. Indigenous and African peoples were at the bottom, with mestizos in between. Independence promised the end of inequality, but that promise was not fulfilled. The history of modern Latin America is the story of struggles between elite groups fighting to keep privileges and the rest of society fighting to gain power.

Although countries followed different paths, the ongoing conflict between elites and popular groups was a common trend. Power swayed back and forth like a pendulum between elites and popular groups.

In this article, we study the swing of this pendulum to explain the history of modern Latin America since World War II. We will look at Brazil, Venezuela, and Chile as examples to illustrate the 70 years of history of more than 20 different countries.

Before World War II, the pendulum swung left

In the early twentieth century, the pendulum was secured on the right by dictators, as in Venezuela, or military- supported elites, as in Brazil and Chile. Their power depended on goods exported to the industrialized world. Workers were overworked and underpaid. The middle class grew as modernization required more lawyers, doctors, and merchants. These classes united in their resentment against elites. They tried to replace the export economy with a more equitable economy. Progressive presidents emphasized social justice and democracy. They defeated elites with popular support, and women attained the right to vote—pushing the pendulum to the left.

After the war, the pendulum swung right

The end of World War II radicalized politics. On the left, radicals sought a classless society through revolution. On the right, the United States supported elites and the military in order to secure Latin American exports and fight communism. The U.S. trained Latin American military officers. Progressive presidents were accused of communist sympathies and toppled by their armies, which further radicalized the left. The military reacted aggressively, swinging the pendulum further right.

Brazil’s progressive period ended with a military coup in 1964. Political parties were eliminated, and war was declared on all leftist sympathizers. The economy grew, but so did poverty. In 1970, Chile elected the first Marxist president in Latin America. The United States boycotted the Chilean economy to force his fall, but it didn’t work. In 1973, the U.S. government supported a bloody coup led by the head of Chile’s military, General Augusto Pinochet.

Under Pinochet, a long “Dirty War” started against the left. Leftist leaders and sympathizers could be kidnapped in the night. Tens of thousands were tortured and then “disappeared.” This so-called war had an international reach within Latin America. Unlike Brazil and Chile, Venezuela managed to avoid a prolonged dictatorship and kept the pendulum on the left. Moderate reformists and leftist politicians successfully created a power-sharing coalition.

Neoliberalism and the pink tide

The 1970s experienced a violent economic swing. Initially, exporters enjoyed a boom. Thanks to borrowing, governments expanded social programs and reinforced infrastructure. However, in 1978, the price of exports collapsed, and lenders began to demand payback. Countries were unable to pay their debts and their economies collapsed. This led to neoliberalism, an economic model that favors the export economy. This type of economy benefits elites while reducing government spending on social programs. Neoliberalism revived the economies of Latin America, but standards of living fell. Neoliberalism kept the pendulum on the right, even as popular resistance strove to push it leftward. A new generation of leftist presidents advocated a democratic socialist revolution, known as the pink tide.

When Brazilian and Chilean economies collapsed, their military governments lost credibility. They were forced to surrender power in the 1980s. However, the military continued to control elections and the new governments implemented neoliberalism. The left was revived in the 1990s, resulting in the election of two of the most effective leaders of the pink tide era: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva in Brazil and Michelle Bachelet in Chile.

Years later, accusations of corruption destroyed their legacy. In 2019, neoliberalism returned to Chile, while Brazilians elected anti-establishment candidate Jair Bolsonaro.

In Venezuela, the collapse of oil prices destroyed the economy during the 1980s. Neoliberal policies stabilized the economy, but the poor paid the price. In 1998, a former military officer, Hugo Chavez, became president. He promised to empower the poor. His presidency benefited from rising oil prices, creating a clientelistic political system consisting of showering favors on his supporters while refusing to help non-party members. He died of cancer in 2013. Nicolas Maduro became his political heir, and as of 2020, Maduro has continued to hold power.

Conclusion

Latin America has been haunted by the legacy of a hierarchical society. The past 70 years have been a constant fight in favor of and against the structures that support it. Today, both neoliberalism and the pink tide are losing credibility. Where will the pendulum swing next?