Introduction

Latin America is south of the United States. Latin America is diverse. Some countries have large indigenous communities; others have majorities of African origin, while others are of European origin. The region’s predominant “ethnicity” is a mixture of all of them: “mestizo.” People of the Americas identify themselves by nationality. The terms “Latina” and “Latino” apply only to people from Latin America living in the United States.

Latin American countries share commonalities, including social hierarchies. During the colonial era, the Spanish, Portuguese, and French planned to be at the top of Latin American society. Indigenous and African peoples were at the bottom, with mestizos in between. Independence promised the end of inequality. That promise was not fulfilled. The history of modern Latin America is the story of struggles between elite groups fighting to keep privileges, and the rest of society fighting to gain power. Ongoing conflict between elites and popular groups was common. Power swayed back and forth like a pendulum between elites and popular groups.

In this article, we study this ongoing conflict to explain the history of modern Latin America since World War II. We will look at Brazil, Venezuela, and Chile as examples to show the history of many countries.

Before World War II, the pendulum swung left

In the early 1900s, the pendulum was on the right as dictators or military-supported elites ruled all three countries. Their power depended on goods exported to richer, industrialized countries. Workers were overworked and underpaid. The middle class grew as societies became modernized. These classes united in their resentment against elites. They tried to replace the export economy with a more equitable economy. Progressive presidents emphasized social justice and democracy. They defeated elites, and women attained the right to vote. This pushed the pendulum to the left.

After the war, the pendulum swung right

The end of World War II radicalized politics. On the left, radicals sought to eliminate class differences through revolution. On the right, the United States supported elites and the military in order to secure Latin American exports and fight communism. The U.S. trained Latin American military officers. Progressive presidents were accused of communist sympathies and were toppled by their armies, which further radicalized the left. The military reacted aggressively, swinging the pendulum further right.

Brazil’s progressive period ended with a military coup in 1964. Political parties were eliminated, and war was declared on all leftist sympathizers. The economy grew, but so did poverty. In 1970, Chile elected the first Marxist president in Latin America. The U.S. boycotted Chile to force his fall. It didn’t work. In 1973, the U.S. government supported a bloody coup led by the head of Chile’s military, General Augusto Pinochet.

Under Pinochet, leftist leaders and sympathizers were kidnapped in the night. Tens of thousands were tortured and then “disappeared.” Unlike Brazil and Chile, Venezuela managed to avoid a prolonged dictatorship and kept the pendulum on the left. Moderate reformists and leftist politicians successfully shared power.

Neoliberalism and the pink tide

The 1970s saw a violent economic swing. Initially, exporters enjoyed a boom and governments borrowed money. Then, in 1978, the price of exports collapsed, and lenders began to demand payback. Countries were unable to pay, and their economies collapsed. This led to neoliberalism, an economic model that favors the export economy. This type of economy benefits elites while reducing government spending. Neoliberalism revived the economies of Latin America, but standards of living fell. Neoliberalism kept the pendulum on the right, even as popular resistance strove to push it leftward. A new generation of leftist presidents arose, known as the pink tide.

When the Brazilian and Chilean economies collapsed, their military governments lost credibility. They were forced to surrender power in the 1980s, but the military continued to control elections. The new governments implemented neoliberalism. The left was revived in the 1990s, resulting in the election of leftist presidents.

In 2019, neoliberalism returned to Chile. In Brazil, people were fed up with the political class on both the left and right. Brazilians elected anti-establishment candidate Jair Bolsonaro.

In Venezuela, the collapse of oil prices destroyed the economy in the 1980s. Neoliberal policies stabilized the economy, but the poor suffered. In 1998, a former military officer, Hugo Chavez, became president. He promised to empower the poor. He created a clientelistic political system consisting of showering favors on his supporters while refusing to help non-party members. He died of cancer in 2013. Nicolas Maduro became his political heir, and as of 2020, Maduro has continued to hold power.

Conclusion

Latin America has been haunted by the legacy of a hierarchical society. The past 70 years have been a constant fight between popular forces and elites. Today, both neoliberalism and the pink tide are losing credibility. Where will the pendulum swing next?