In some areas, the shift to farming led to two new structures—cities and states. Not all agrarian societies developed these structures, and certainly not all states or cities were organized in the same way. By studying them, however, we can determine certain patterns in how such societies were organized and governed. These patterns can help us to make sense of the past.

This article introduces two key developments in this period – the city and the state. It provides definitions, describes what they generally looked like, and can help you understand how they formed. This is all evidence that helps you answer the Era Problem: How did new complex societies develop and what was their impact on humans both inside and outside these communities? But you may also encounter other evidence in this lesson that doesn’t entirely agree with this material! You will have to evaluate for yourself.

Preview—Skimming for Gist

Fill out the Skimming for Gist section of the Three Close Reads Worksheet as you complete your first close read. As a reminder, this should be a quick process!

Key Ideas—Understanding Content

For this reading, you should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions:

1. What is the author’s definition of a village? What is the author’s definition of a city? Do you agree that this is a good definition of a city?
2. What is the author’s definition of a state? Do you agree that this is a useful definition of a state?
3. Where and when did agrarian societies emerge first? Where did they emerge independently?
4. According to the author, what processes led people to form states?
5. Where, according to the author, were there regions without “early societies”? What do you think of this argument?
6. What, according to the author, were some common characteristics of agrarian societies?

Evaluating and Corroborating

At the end of the third close read, respond to the following questions:

1. The author points out that large states are often called “societies” or “civilizations”, but this course doesn’t use the term “civilizations” very often. Why do you think that might be, and what do you think of that decision?
2. Think back to the video Farming and the State. How might the two experts in that video have agreed or disagreed with the author of this piece in terms of the relationship between agrarian society and the rise of states?

The development of the city marked a real shift in the lives of people who lived there, and inspired art and music about the new kind of life they were living. Cities emerged in many parts of the world in this era, even though most people did not live in cities. Cities had organization and hierarchy, although not always to the same degree or in the same way. Cities also featured a division of labor and specialization. Finally, cities connected in networks, both with each other, and to the rural areas around them.

This article is an introduction to two key developments in this period – the city and the state. It provides evidence for responding to the Era Problem: How did new complex societies develop and what was their impact on humans both inside and outside these communities? Some of this evidence seems to contradict some other articles you may read. This article also will help you to evaluate the communities frame narrative for this era.

Preview—Skimming for Gist

Fill out the Skimming for Gist section of the Three Close Reads Worksheet as you complete your first close read. As a reminder, this should be a quick process!

Key Ideas—Understanding Content

For this reading, you should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions:

1. The author begins with a piece from the Epic of Gilgamesh, which he compares to music from Jay-Z and Alicia Keyes. Why does he compare these two artistic works?
2. Where does this author state that cities first appeared, and where did they appear afterward in this period?
3. The author argues that an essential part of urbanization was hierarchy. Does the evidence he presents support this argument?
4. The author also argues that cities allowed for job specialization, but that people in cities were still dependent on rural farms and villages. Why was that true?
5. The author suggests that cities created a kind of network that was an “urban archipelago”. An archipelago is a group of islands. What do you think he means by this metaphor?
6. How were the networks that cities built not like an archipelago?

Evaluating and Corroborating

At the end of the third close read, respond to the following questions:

1. We generally think of cities as having hierarchies, but the author suggests that there are some cities where we cannot see evidence of hierarchies. Do you think that means there were no hierarchies? What is another explanation?
2. How does this author’s argument and evidence compare and contrast to the evidence in “Introduction to Agrarian Societies”?

Historical events are usually complicated and rarely have one cause. In fact, they often have multiple causes, some of which occur long before the event while others happen right before the event took place. In addition, some causes are central causes that greatly influence the historical event; others simply contribute to it. Understanding how these causes relate to the historical event or process being studied is central to analyzing change over time. In this activity, you’ll learn to find connections between historical events over time.

Claim testing, contextualization
The focus of this activity is on causation, but in order to fully understand causal relationships, you must be able to place these events in the context of their time and place. Use the language of contextualization in this activity wherever possible. Finally, claim test the assertions you make in the short writing assignment at the end of the activity.

Part 1

In this activity, you will focus on population growth in this era to extend your understanding of causation. This will help you create evidence-based explanations or arguments in response to causal questions.

First, take out the Causation – Population Growth worksheet, which includes the Causation Tool, and review the graphs on population growth and urbanization. Answer the worksheet questions. Be prepared to discuss your answers with your class. Working together, you’ll create a list of all the causes and effects that you can come up with.

Before moving on to Part 2, review a few categories of causation, along with the language we use to describe them:

• Time: Long term, intermediate term, and short term
• Historical significance:
  • Amount – How many people’s lives were affected by the cause/effect?
  • Depth – Were people living in the time period being studied deeply affected by the cause/effect?
  • Endurance – Were the changes people experienced as a result of this cause/effect long-lasting and/or recurring?

In this activity, you are adding one more category: Type. Categorizing causes by historical type will help you group similar causes together, which is the kind of analysis that historians do when they categorize the economic or political causes of an event or process. Review the different categories for type. There’s also a mnemonic device to help you remember these categories: PIECES.

• Type: Historical type
  • (P) Political – What type of government, organization, or power structure was there? Who was in charge? Did people vote or have a say?
  • (I) Innovation – What did they invent? Were there any new developments or technologies?
  • ($) Economic – What jobs were there? Did they use money? Did they trade?
  • (C) Cultural – What/whom did they worship? What/whom did they believe in? Did they have written language? Did they leave any artifacts behind, such as art, customs, sports, dress, language, music, dance, foods, celebrations?
  • (E) Environmental – How did they attempt to control or use the environment? What impact did the land, water, and nature around them have on the way they lived?
  • (S) Social – Were there different roles for men and women? Did they live in family units? Did they interact with other groups? Did they have a social structure (enslaved, priests, kings)?

Part 2

Working in small groups, use the Causation Tool section of the worksheet to categorize the class list of causes and effects.

Finally, either working alone or in groups (your teacher will tell you which), write a response (two to four sentences) to the question:

What was the most significant cause AND what was the most significant effect of population growth?

Remember to use the language of causation to help frame your responses, and be sure to include your categorization from the tool, including time period and type, as well as historical significance.

And don’t forget to back up your assertions with evidence! Think about whether your most significant cause and effect are connected. The most significant causes and effects can be quite different and even seem unrelated, which is one of the things that makes causation more complicated than it may seem on the surface!

Mesopotamia was one of the first regions of the world to develop cities, states, and empires (and writing, and taxes). From Uruk, through the Babylonians, to the Neo-Assyrians, the history of this region is one of complex societies that grew in size, until they didn’t.

This scale-switching video introduces students to Mesopotamia as an example of a region with early states and complex societies. The information in this video will support you in developing a response to the Era Problem and provide evidence for evaluating the communities frame narrative.

Preview—Skimming for Gist

As a reminder, open and skim the transcript, and read the questions before you want the video.

Key Ideas—Understanding Content

Think about the following questions as you watch this video:

1. According to John Green, when and where did cities first start to pop up in this region?
2. How was food produced and distributed in this society?
3. What were early cities like Uruk like and how were they ruled?
4. Why was cuneiform first developed and why is writing important, according to John Green?
5. How were Mesopotamia’s first territorial kingdoms ruled, and what was their great weakness?
6. What is an empire, according to John Green, and why are they difficult to rule?
7. What was one of the core ideas of the Neo-Assyrian worldview, and how did it help lead to the downfall of its empire?

Evaluating and Corroborating

1. You now know how cities, then states, then empires formed in Mesopotamia. Do you think it would be possible for things to go differently – for states to form without cities, or for a region to never actually form empires? Why or why not?

You have been introduced to the historical thinking practice of contextualization, and now you’ll deepen your understanding of this practice by considering the conditions from which agrarian societies emerged around the globe. This will highlight how geography is an important factor to consider when contextualizing historical events or processes.

Causation, claim testing
To understand why and how humans made the switch from foraging to the formation of agrarian societies, you must analyze the factors that led to this transition. You will also employ your claim-testing skills to evaluate why early humans began forming agrarian societies in certain areas before others.

In this activity, you will work as a class to fill out the Contextualization Tool for the agrarian societies that first emerged: Mesopotamia, China, Mesoamerica, the Andean zone of South America, Africa (Egyptian and Nubian society, Aksum, and the Nok society), and the Indus River Valley.

First, your teacher will assign one of the locations where agrarian societies first emerged. Read the related article or transcript, and using the Three Close Reads process, think about the following question: Why did an agrarian society form in this specific location?

Once you’ve read the article or transcript, fill out the Contextualization Tool with your class. Make sure to contribute based on what you learned for this article or video.

Now that you’ve filled out most of the tool, try to come up with two ideas that help explain the context as to why agrarian societies emerged in these areas. Try to include the following reasons:

• One about the location (place in space)
• One about the culture of that area

Now that you’ve had a minute to reflect, share your ideas with the class. After hearing everyone’s reasons, think about the following question: Is there anything similar across each of the sites that can help explain the larger context for why agrarian societies emerged across the globe and not just in their particular areas? In small groups, try to answer this question, and then write a contextualization paragraph about why agrarian societies emerged around the globe.

Since this is the first time you’re writing a contextualization paragraph for a historical event or process, think about how you would answer the following question or prompt for an essay: Why did agrarian societies emerge around the globe in these locations? Your contextualization paragraph should include the following elements:

• Timeframe – What historical events or processes were taking place before agriculture emerged and as farming and agrarian societies formed?
• Locations – Was your topic of study local, regional, national, or global? What type of locations were they (for example, farm, city, on land, on water)?
• What do the frames suggest about the event or source at that time and in that place?

Note that the Contextualization Tool also asks about modern day attitudes and values, but you can skip that one for now. Make sure your group is prepared to share your paragraph with your teacher and the class.

We often speak of China as being ruled by a series of dynasties. This is largely true. But the shape, size, and culture of the societies ruled by these dynasties frequently changed. The Shang are the first dynasty whose presence can be verified by evidence. Their kings, who were also the lead religious figures in the society, led a community tied together by ritual and practice as much as trade and government.

This article provides one case study for evaluating the development of early agrarian societies. These were among the societies from which cities, states, empires, and long-distance trade routes emerged. Each case study gives you some evidence for thinking about these societies through the three frames of the course, which will help you to respond to the Era Problem: How did new complex societies develop and what was their impact on humans both inside and outside these communities? In looking at the evidence through these frames, you might also find that you want to extend or contest the frame narratives.

Preview—Skimming for Gist

Have students fill out the Skimming for Gist section of the Three Close Reads Worksheet as they complete their first close read.

Key Ideas—Understanding Content

In this read, students should be paying attention to the information that most helps them understand the article. To do this, students should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. By the end of the second close read, students should be able to answer the following questions:

1. How and why did early agrarian societies form in this region?
2. What does evidence from the Shang Dynasty China tell you about how production and distribution worked in this society?
3. What does evidence from this reading tell you about how people in this society formed and maintained communities (religious, state, and otherwise)?
4. What does the evidence in this reading tell you about how the societies in this region participated in networks that moved ideas, people, and things?

Evaluating and Corroborating

At the end of the third close read, respond to the following questions:

1. Compare and contrast this society to other societies in readings from the same set. What seem to be some commonalities of early agrarian societies, when viewed through the three frames of production and distribution, communities, and networks?
2. What is the principal evidence cited in this article? How do you think the availability of different kinds of evidence affects what we know about these societies?

The Nile River was an extended zone of fresh water, good soil, and great conditions for growing plants. Lots of communities developed along it over thousands of years. Long before they unified into large states, they were developing new technologies, finding ways to govern themselves, and creating a shared religious and cultural tradition.

This article provides one case study for evaluating the development of early agrarian societies. Cities, states, empires, and long-distance trade routes emerged from these societies. Each case study gives you some evidence for thinking about these societies through the three frames of the course, which will help you to respond to the Era Problem: How did new complex societies develop and what was their impact on humans both inside and outside these communities? In looking at the evidence through these frames, you might also find that you want to extend or contest the frame narratives.

Your teacher may also read have you read this article as a part of the activity called Contextualization – Agrarian Societies.

Preview—Skimming for Gist

Fill out the Skimming for Gist section of the Three Close Reads Worksheet as you complete your first close read. As a reminder, this should be a quick process!

Key Ideas – Understanding Content

For this reading, you should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions:

1. How and why did early agrarian societies form in this region?
2. What does evidence from the Nile River region tell you about how production and distribution worked in this society?
3. What does evidence from this reading tell you about how people in this society formed and maintained communities (religious, state, and otherwise)?
4. What does the evidence in this reading tell you about how the societies in this region participated in networks that moved ideas, people, and things?

Evaluating and Corroborating

At the end of the third close read, respond to the following questions:

1. Compare and contrast this society to other societies in readings from the same set. What seem to be some commonalities of early agrarian societies, when viewed through the three frames of production and distribution, communities, and networks?
2. What is the principal evidence cited in this article? How do you think the availability of different kinds of evidence affects what we know about these societies?

Early agrarian societies in the Americas developed largely along river valleys. They established cultures, like those of the Olmec and at Chavín de Huántar, that exerted some cultural and political power over neighboring communities. Even though each society came to an end, it was probably because they were replaced by later societies that built a lot on their early innovations.

This article provides one case study for evaluating the development of early agrarian societies. Cities, states, empires, and long-distance trade routes emerged from these societies. Each case study gives you some evidence for thinking about them through the three frames of the course, which will help you to respond to the Era Problem: How did new complex societies develop and what was their impact on humans both inside and outside these communities? In looking at the evidence through these frames, you might also want to extend or contest the frame narratives.

Your teacher may also read have you read this article as a part of the activity called Contextualization – Agrarian Societies.

Preview—Skimming for Gist

Fill out the Skimming for Gist section of the Three Close Reads Worksheet as you complete your first close read. As a reminder, this should be a quick process!

Key Ideas—Understanding Content

For this reading, you should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions:

1. How and why did early agrarian societies form in this region?
2. What does evidence from the Americas tell you about how production and distribution worked in these societies?
3. What does evidence from this reading tell you about how people in these societies formed and maintained communities (religious, state, and otherwise)?
4. What does the evidence in this reading tell you about how the societies in this region participated in networks that moved ideas, people, and things?

Evaluating and Corroborating

At the end of the third close read, respond to the following questions:

1. Compare and contrast this society to other societies in readings from the same set. What seem to be some commonalities of early agrarian societies, when viewed through the three frames of production and distribution, communities, and networks?
2. What is the principal evidence cited in this article? How do you think the availability of different kinds of evidence affects what we know about these societies?

For a long time, the people of the Horn of Africa were expert hunters, gatherers and herders of animals. Agriculture developed later here. But the farming communities that emerged quickly took advantage of the many environments of the region and also of trading across the Red Sea and to other parts of Africa.

This article provides one case study for evaluating the development of early agrarian societies. Cities, states, empires, and long-distance trade routes emerged from these societies. Each case study gives you some evidence for thinking about them through the three frames of the course. These case studies will help you to respond to the Era Problem:

How did new complex societies develop and what was their impact on humans both inside and outside these communities? Looking at the evidence through these frames might also encourage you to extend or contest the frame narratives.

Your teacher may also have you read this article as a part of the activity called Contextualization – Agrarian Societies.

Preview—Skimming for Gist

Fill out the Skimming for Gist section of the Three Close Reads Worksheet as you complete your first close read. As a reminder, this should be a quick process!

Key Ideas—Understanding Content

For this reading, you should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions:

1. How and why did early agrarian societies form in this region?
2. What does evidence from Aksum tell you about how production and distribution worked in this society?
3. What does evidence from this reading tell you about how people in this society formed and maintained communities (religious, state, and otherwise)?
4. What does the evidence in this reading tell you about how the societies in this region participated in networks that moved ideas, people, and things?

Evaluating and Corroborating

At the end of the third close read, respond to the following questions:

1. Compare and contrast this society to societies in other readings from the same set. What seem to be some commonalities of early agrarian societies, when viewed through the three frames of production and distribution, communities, and networks?
2. What is the principal evidence cited in this article? How do you think the availability of different kinds of evidence affects what we know about these societies?

Agriculture probably emerged earlier in West Africa than we previously thought. Farming communities in the region around the Niger and Benue River developed a distinctive pottery technique several thousand years ago, and then later learned to smelt iron. These were two tools for building a complex society about which we still know little.

This article provides one case study for evaluating the development of early agrarian societies. Cities, states, empires, and long-distance trade routes emerged from these societies. Each case study gives you some evidence for thinking about these societies through the three frames of the course, which will help you to respond to the Era Problem: How did new complex societies develop and what was their impact on humans both inside and outside these communities? In looking at the evidence through these frames, you might also find that you want to extend or contest the frame narratives.

Your teacher may also read have you read this article as a part of the activity called Contextualization – Agrarian Societies.

Preview—Skimming for Gist

Fill out the Skimming for Gist section of the Three Close Reads Worksheet as you complete your first close read. As a reminder, this should be a quick process!

Key Ideas—Understanding Content

For this reading, you should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions:

1. How and why did early agrarian societies form in this region?
2. What does evidence from Nok society tell you about how production and distribution worked in this society?
3. What does evidence from this reading tell you about how people in this society formed and maintained communities (religious, state, and otherwise)?
4. What does the evidence in this reading tell you about how the societies in this region participated in networks that moved ideas, people, and things?

Evaluating and Corroborating

At the end of the third close read, respond to the following questions:

1. Compare and contrast this society to other societies in readings from the same set. What seem to be some commonalities of early agrarian societies, when viewed through the three frames of production and distribution, communities, and networks?
2. What is the principal evidence cited in this article? How do you think the availability of different kinds of evidence affects what we know about these societies?

The Indus River Valley developed a large population and highly-organized cities quite early. These were both agricultural centers and centers of trade. Yet there is little evidence of a centralized political leadership for Mohenjo-Daro or Harappa, which were probably two of the largest cities in the world at the time. What was going on?

This article provides one case study for evaluating the development of early agrarian societies. Cities, states, empires, and long-distance trade routes emerged from these societies. Each case study gives you some evidence for thinking about these societies through the three frames of the course, which will help you to respond to the Era Problem: How did new complex societies develop and what was their impact on humans both inside and outside these communities? In looking at the evidence through these frames, you might also find that you want to extend or contest the frame narratives.

Your teacher may also read have you read this article as a part of the activity called Contextualization – Agrarian Societies.

Preview—Skimming for Gist

Fill out the Skimming for Gist section of the Three Close Reads Worksheet as you complete your first close read. As a reminder, this should be a quick process!

Key Ideas—Understanding Content

For this reading, you should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions:

1. How and why did early agrarian societies form in this region?
2. What does evidence from the Indus River region tell you about how production and distribution worked in this society?
3. What does evidence from this reading tell you about how people in this society formed and maintained communities (religious, state, and otherwise)?
4. What does the evidence in this reading tell you about how the societies in this region participated in networks that moved ideas, people, and things?

Evaluating and Corroborating

At the end of the third close read, respond to the following questions:

1. Compare and contrast this society to other societies in readings from the same set. What seem to be some commonalities of early agrarian societies, when viewed through the three frames of production and distribution, communities, and networks?
2. What is the principal evidence cited in this article? How do you think the availability of different kinds of evidence affects what we know about these societies?