Introduction to this collection

The world in 1750 was on the cusp of some massive upheavals. By some accounts, the first rumbles of these coming changes were beginning to be felt. In 1750, the world was largely made up of empires and kingdoms. In this source collection, readers will view these political communities from multiple perspectives, getting a snapshot of the how different governments structured the lives of people around the globe just before and after mid- century. Readers will see the Ottoman Empire from its center and from its periphery; the Spanish Empire from the colonies in the Latin American Andes region; the Persian Afsharid Dynasty, from the view of Dehli in India; the Funj Sultunate in modern-day Sudan; and the Champa city-states in modern-day Vietnam. These sources will give readers some insight into how communities were organized, how large and dynamic they were, and who was included and excluded. In these sources, readers will encounter spirited sentiments about what counts as homeland and country and who belongs—often from a point of view long before some places were ever formal nations. They will also give a sense of shifting networks that bound those communities together.

Guiding question to think about as you read the documents: How were communities in regions separated by vast distances similar to each other?

WHP Primary Source Punctuation Key

When you read through these primary source collections, you might notice some unusual punctuation like this: . . . and [ ] and ( ). Use the table below to help you understand what this punctuation means.

Contents

Source 1 – Advice from the Ottoman grand vizier, Abdullah Pasha, in 1749 (2:10)

Source 2 – The barber of Damascus’ chronicle of the year 1749 (7:35)

Source 3 – Pasquinades against the government, 1770s (12:10)

Source 4 – Charter by Sultan Badi IV of the Kingdom of Sinnar, 1744 (15:45)

Source 5 – Trade at Hôi An, 1770s (21:20)

Source 6 – ‘Abd al-Karim Kashmiri’s account of Nadir Shah’s Campaign in Central Asia, c. 1740–1780 (24:50)

Source 1 – Advice from the Ottoman grand vizier, Abdullah Pasha, in 1749 (2:10)

Guiding question

How were communities in regions separated by vast distances similar to each other?

Excerpt

My honorable, felicitous colleague, Excellency:

Because offices in the Exalted Everlasting State were originally arranged according to good and wise principles arising out of acceptance of good order, in the well-protected imperial dominions, to protect, comfort, and arrange the affairs of the poor reaya (common people) who are in the safekeeping of God; and to regulate and advance, according to a desirable method, the interests of the Exalted State in the provinces; and in order to achieve good and beneficial causes, to each of the great provinces in the well-protected imperial dominions, by appointing and assigning a governor from among the great viziers (highest government officials), their [agreement] and unity are needed for continuously advancing [state] interests and obtaining the comfort of the people, which is the fundamental purpose cited [above].

And in particular, collecting the miri revenues (land tax) which are entrusted to the obligation of the governors of Sidon, and supervising and advancing the other interests of the Exalted State, are dependent on the [agreement] and mutual support of the governors of Damascus. And likewise, governors of Damascus are appointed to the duty of administering, as required, the matter of the caravan of the commander of the Muslim pilgrims. Because it is known to their excellencies that they are dependent on the establishment of the necessities of love and friendship with the great viziers who are appointed to and aided with the affairs of the cerde (pilgrimage safety officers), according to the requirement that their excellencies demonstrate [righteousness] and watchful attention, the honorable governors of the provinces near those [regions] (i.e. near Damascus) are ordered nonetheless to esteem the exalted path of amity and friendship.

At this time, however. . .some coolness has resulted between you and the current governor of Damascus, the honorable vizier, Esat [Pasha]. Because the occurrence of this state of affairs is discerned and understood, the matter with which you are charged—collecting the miri revenues—entails agitation and difficulty. If it were necessary to listen to the Druze¹ beyhs (aristocrats), payment of the miri revenues charged to them would be accomplished carelessly, and supervising the matters of the Noble Pilgrimage, collecting the money to be transferred for [purchasing] provisions for the imperial fortresses [lying on the route of Damascus to Arabia], and assigning the duty of dispatching the cerde at the proper time would become impeded by delay. In this way, it is evident that both you and the said vizier’s affairs would necessarily suffer disorder.

Citation

1 Druze are a religious minority in Greater Syria, who are less likely to comply with the governor’s wishes.

Source 2 – The barber of Damascus’ chronicle of the year 1749 (7:35)

Guiding question

How were communities in regions separated by vast distances similar to each other?

Excerpt

The Year 1162 AH (1749 CE)

The first of Muharram² landed on a Saturday. This year was destined by God to be a blessed one for us and for all our fellow Muslims. As for now, however, the common people continue to suffer under the weight of the high cost of living. . .

On the 27th of Muharram, the official messenger of the hajj caravan arrived in town and, three days later, the carrier of letters from the pilgrims also arrived. On a Thursday night, the 5th of Safar,³ the caravan itself finally arrived in town. . .

On the 10th of Rabi al-Awwal,⁴ a bitter cold snap gripped the city. Folks started selling coal by the basket- full, carrying it on their heads. The ratl⁵ ran for five masari.⁶ They roamed the markets and neighborhoods.

On the 17th of Rabi al-Awwal, an official messenger from Istanbul arrived to call upon As’ad Pasha al-Azm, the emir of the hajj and the governor of Damascus. It appeared that this message came directly from the imperial palace so he ordered a firework display to mark the occasion. Imperial guards and regular forces raced toward the governor’s palace. The people of Damascus thought that a skirmish had taken place so the town shut down. The governor was informed and responded, ‘Fire the cannon and light the fireworks once again.’ The order was filled and the common folk calmed down and opened their shops. During these days, some of the Turkish imperial guards got drunk and four locals were injured and died some days later from their wounds. No inquest was made on behalf of these unfortunates.

High prices continued to mount. A ratl of the most inferior kind of bread cost six masari, the medium quality eight masari and the best quality twelve. . . . The common people were in deep distress.

. . .

The rise in prices in Bilad al-Sham⁷ continued unabated. It reached us the ratl of bread in Tripoli cost ten masari, and in Gaza and Ramla twenty-five masari. Thus, the misfortune and subjugation of the common people continued.

. . .

Citation

2 The first month of the Islamic lunar calendar; accordingly, the first of Muharram is the Islamic new year
3 The second month of the Islamic lunar calendar
4 The third month of the Islamic lunar calendar
5 A measure of weight that’s roughly 6 pounds
6 A silver currency
7 A region that includes modern-day Palestine, Lebanon, Syria, and Israel, as well as parts of Jordan

Source 3 – Pasquinades against the government, 1770s (12:10)

Guiding question

How were communities in regions separated by vast distances similar to each other?

Excerpt

Pasquinade 1

Pluck this thieving old gallo,⁸ cut up some juicy morsels, and into the river with him. There’s no feigning ignorance or saying his downfall was sudden, as this is the third warning. Such a shame that many will pay for this thieving scoundrel.

the miserable
conniving
corregidor⁹
the Devil take this
cursed fellow,
pluck this evil gallo

these gentlemen
are the thieving
royal officials

and after these will follow those who the nineteenth of this month,
are [guilty] and those who are not it will turn out badly for who-
ever does not defend the patria (nation).

Pasquinade 2

Long live God’s law and the purity of Mary! Death to the king of Spain and may Peru come to an end! For he is the cause of such iniquity. If the monarch knows not the insolence of his ministers, the public larceny, and how they prey upon the poor, long live the king and death to all these public thieves since they will not rectify that which is asked of them. This is the second warning and there is no rectification. We will weep with grief since because of two or three miserable thieves among us many innocent lives will be lost and as much blood will run through streets and squares as the streets of La Paz can hold water! The nineteenth of this month, let him beware who does not defend the creoles.

Citation

8 A gallo is literally a rooster, but in this context could mean “a conceited person” – like calling someone “cocky” in English. Conveniently, the person the writer is criticizing is named Bernardo Gallo.
9 A corregidor was a local administrative and judicial official in the Spanish Empire.

Source 4 – Charter by Sultan Badi IV of the Kingdom of Sinnar, 1744 (15:45)

Guiding question

How were communities in regions separated by vast distances similar to each other?

Excerpt

He who trusts in God and the messenger
The son of Sultan Nol
Sultan Badi 1137/1724-1725

A sultanic charter and royal document [issued] in the divinely guarded and protected city of Sinnar, [may God Most High exalt her, in the presence of her warden, whom God has supported], aided, invested, elevated, and strengthened, and made [a protecting shelter with whom every subject may seek refuge]. He is happy in this world and, if God wills, in the next will be [a martyr. His interior is] purity, his exterior truth and fidelity. Truthful in word [and trustworthy in deed], when he speaks he speaks the truth, and when he speaks the truth he has ordained, our lord the sultan, [the son of the sultan, Sultan] Badi the son of Sultan Nol. May God, the Merciful, [the Compassionate], grant him victory [through the influence of the sublime] Qur’an and the eminent prophet. Amen, amen, Oh Lord of the Universe.

To [the presence of all who read this] document and see the truth therein.

Thereafter: [The pious, divinely assisted and victorious sultan] has confirmed to Faqih ‘Abd al-Hadi walad Muhammad walad ‘Abd al-Hadi walad Dolib the zariba (settlement) of his grandfather Muhammad walad Dolib, formerly in his possession and not that of his neighbors, nor of his kinsmen by marriage who are in his zariba. Let no one draw near or [approach them], nor trouble them in their grant, not in little and not in much, neither in selling nor in buying. . . Let no one draw near or approach them, nor pause near them along the way. Let no one carry off [even] the rope they have [thrown away]. We command you peremptorily, all you shaykhs (rulers) and muqaddams (officials), and [all] who are under them throughout my kingdom. . .and all who are under my authority; let no one of you trouble this grant. He who troubles [it after] these my words has exposed himself to destruction. Beware, then beware of disobedience, and let [the disobedient blame] none but himself.

There were present and witnessed to it:

Shaykh Bashar
the jundi, Muhammad
Shaykh ‘Abd Allah, Shaykh of Qarri
[Shaykh Sulayman, Shaykh of Alays]
[Shaykh ‘Ali walad Shawir], Shaykh of al-Taka
Shaykh ‘Ali, Shaykh of Atbara
Shaykh Muhammad Qayli, Shaykh of [Bayla]
[Shaykh Fatir], Shaykh of al-Bahr
Shaykh Mahmud, muqaddam al-quwwariya
[Sultan] Khamis, Sultan Fur al-Musabba’at
Shaykh Jabir, [muqaddam al-qawawid]
[Shaykh ‘Ali walad Tuma], muqaddam al-khayl
Shaykh ‘Azuza, muqaddam of the compound of Nasir, maternal uncle of the king
[ ... ]

With God, [two witnesses suffice]. It was completed in God’s month of Rajab in the year 1157, [one thousand one hundred] fifty-[seven] from the hijra, upon whose master [the best of prayers and purest peace].

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Source 5 – Trade at Hôi An, 1770s (21:20)

Guiding question

How were communities in regions separated by vast distances similar to each other?

Excerpt

It is only six days and nights from Guangzhou to Thuân Hóa and Quang Nam on the sea, [then proceeding] either from the seaport of Han along the Phú Xuân River [Hurong Giang] to Phõ Thanh Hà, or to Hôi An via its seaport of Dai Chiêm. It takes only four days and nights and one canh [about two hours] to Son Nam, but no goods other than rice can be obtained. Furthermore, only pepper is available from Thuan Hóa, whereas such an abundance of goods can be carried from Quang Nam that seemingly nothing cannot be obtained there; it is superior to all other ports of Southeast Asia. The goods come from Thuân Hóa, Dien Bàn, Quy Nho’n, Quang Ngãi, Bình Khang and Nha Trang, carried by ships, boats and horse, by land and by sea, and assembled in Hôi An. That is why the Chinese like to come and buy goods to carry back. The goods are so abundant here that even a hundred large ships could not carry them all away from here. . . .

Here the best were the Chinese cassia trees, agalloch¹⁰ from the eaglewood, and pearls. Red sandalwood was also produced here, but the quality was not as good as in Siam. When asked how well the goods brought from China sold here, the man said that the goods sold out very quickly, [and soon] nothing was left. Colored gauze, satin, brocade and cloth; all kinds of medicinal herbs; paper whether golden, silver or colored; slender sticks of incense; threads whether golden, silver or colored; pigments; clothes, shoes and socks; do lo flannelette [possibly patola, from Java]; glass mirrors, writing brushes and ink sticks; needles and knobs; all kinds of tables and chairs; metals; porcelains and stonewares; and all kinds of food. [All] were bought and sold here, and everyone got what he or she wanted.

Citation

10 An aromatic resin which is used as incense and perfume

Source 6 – ‘Abd al-Karim Kashmiri’s account of Nadir Shah’s Campaign in Central Asia, c. 1740–1780 (24:50)

Guiding question

How were communities in regions separated by vast distances similar to each other?

Excerpt

[Nadir Shah] set out upon his expedition against Turan. . . and by quick marches arrived at Maruchaq. This town is well inhabited. . . Nadir Shah has compelled some people of the tribe of Shahun to settle here. Throughout Iran, and the bordering territories, are an infinite number of aylats, or wandering tribes, and of whom the Persian army is chiefly composed. The most numerous of these tribes, are the Akrad, or Kurds, the Aqsar, the Jalaru, the Qarachlu, the Fardad ‘Ali, the Shamlu, and the Bekht- yari. Like the Arabs of the desert, they wander about in quest of good pasturage and water, which when they have found, they pitch their tents and remain till their cattle have eaten up all the grass on that spot, when they remove in search of more. Amongst these people, riches and property signify flocks and herds of camels, horses, oxen, sheep, and goats. Some of them, however, settle in towns, and apply themselves to agriculture. These customs prevail also throughout Turan.

From the borders of Maruchaq to the town of Andkhuy, dependent upon Balkh, there are very few buildings; and the country being unfrequented, abounds with game and wild beasts. . . Between Herat and Balkh is a sandy desert, entirely destitute of water, three days journey in length; the exact breadth I was not able to learn; but it extends to the borders of Khorezm, and to Qaraqalpaq, the entrance into the Dasht-i Qïp- chaq. It also marks the boundary between Bukhara and Merv Shayjan. . . . In passing it this time, many men and great numbers of horses perished.

From Herat to Balkh our route lay chiefly west. As Balkh had been some time in the possession of Nadir Shah, the army did not meet with any [problems] on the march to that city. . . Balkh must have been a fine city before the rapacity of its governors had reduced the inhabitants to their present state of indigence. . .

Bukhara, from being the residence of the monarch, is the finest city in Turan. The inhabitants of Turan, when compared with those of Turkey, Persia, and Hindustan, may be said to be poor in point of money and the luxuries of life, but in lieu thereof the Almighty has given them abundance of most exquisite fruits; with robust forms, and healthy constitutions, the greatest of earthly blessings.

In reflecting upon the poverty of Turan and Arabia, I was at first at a loss to assign a reason why those countries had never been able to retain wealth, whilst, on the contrary, it is daily increasing in Hindustan. Timur carried into Turan the riches of Turkey, Persia, and Hindustan, but they are all dissipated; and during the reigns of the four first Caliphs, Turkey, Persia, part of Arabia, Ethiopia, Egypt, and Spain, were their tributaries; but still they were not rich. It is evident that this dissipation of the riches of a state must have happened either from some extraordinary drains, or from some defect in the government. Hindustan has been frequently plundered by foreign invaders, and not one of its Kings ever gained for it any acquisition of wealth; neither has the country many mines of gold and silver, and yet Hindustan abounds in money and every other kind of wealth. The abundance of species is undoubtedly owing to the large importation of gold and silver in the ships of Europe and other nations, many of whom bring ready money in exchange for the manufactures and natural productions of the country. If this is not the cause of the prosperous state of Hindustan, it must be owing to the peculiar blessing of God.

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