Geography and Environment

Two major rivers flow through what was Mesopotamia. One is the Tigris. The other is the Euphrates. Both start in the Zagros Mountains and flow to the Persian Gulf. Mesopotamia’s people settled in the valleys along these two great rivers. The fertile river valley soil was perfect for farming. Agriculture in the region became very advanced. Around 3800 BCE, large city-states such as Eridu, Ur, and Uruk formed in southern Mesopotamia. This group of city-states is known as Sumer. The city-states in northern Mesopotamia are known as Akkad.

Mesopotamia was semi-arid, meaning it didn’t get much rain. But when the snows thawed in the Zagros Mountains, the rivers flooded, leaving behind rich soil. This flooding made large-scale farming possible. Unfortunately, it was hard to predict when floods would happen. Over time, flooding and the semi-arid climate caused a build-up of salt in the soil. The mix of flooding and increasingly salty soil meant a city-state’s harvest could be ruined. When this happened, the result was widespread hunger.

Political Structure

Mesopotamia’s political structure was closely tied to the region’s environment. Why would the environment matter politically? Well, rich soil usually led to lots of valuable crops. Extra crops had to be stored and given out to people. Someone had to oversee large projects like building irrigation or watering systems, canals, and walls to protect a city-state’s food supply. Each city- state had a ruler who directed these projects. Usually, that ruler was a king. Every city-state needed access to water and land. As a result, conflicts often broke out between the city-states. So, a city-state also required a strong ruler who commanded soldiers.

During Sargon’s reign (c. 2334 to 2279 BCE), the Akkadian Empire stretched from the Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf. To control his empire, Sargon created the first permanent army. It had about 5,000 soldiers. He also made the first postal system to send messages to his officials. These reforms helped trade increase. He selected people he trusted for offices. For example, he made his daughter Enheduanna a high priestess of Ur.

After Sargon died, his male heirs ruled until 2150 BCE. At that point, a famine, or shortage of food, weakened the empire. A nomadic people from the Zagros Mountains defeated Sargon’s dynasty. City-states became independent again, and the empire broke apart. But the Akkadian Empire wasn’t forgotten. Sargon served as the model ruler for future kings such as Hammurabi of the Babylonian Empire and Sargon II of the Assyrian Empire.

Culture

Writing was invented in Mesopotamia around 3400 BCE. The Sumerians wrote on clay tablets using a script called cuneiform. Thanks to the climate of Mesopotamia, these tablets still exist. The tablets allow us to see such things as records of trade, letters, and stories.

The first epic poem, The Epic of Gilgamesh, was written in Akkadian. It tells the story of Gilgamesh and his attempt to live forever. The author of this epic is unknown. But Mesopotamia holds the record for the first named author. She was a woman called Enheduanna (c. 2285 to 2250 BCE). Enheduanna was Sargon’s daughter and a priestess. She wrote poetry about gods and goddesses, but she also wrote about her own life.

Writing wasn’t the Mesopotamians’ only success. The Sumerians used math to survey land for farming and watering crops. Mesopotamian astronomers named five planets, predicted eclipses, and created the zodiac signs. They even invented the 24-hour day, with 60-minute hours and 60-second minutes. It is the very same system we still use today!

Society

Like most complex agrarian societies, Mesopotamian society was hierarchical. This means that society was divided into levels. The king and nobles were at the top, along with priests and priestesses. The lower classes and enslaved were at the bottom. Members of the upper classes held different jobs, such as merchants, military officers, and scribes. Most people were in the lower classes and worked as farmers, soldiers, and artisans. A lot of people were enslaved. Most became enslaved after being captured in war. However, some people sold themselves into slavery to pay off debts. People could pay to no longer be enslaved.

Men and women had different roles. In general, men had the most power. However, some women had powerful positions. Women of the lower classes worked as midwives, perfumers, or tavern managers.

Religion was very important in everyday life. The king was believed to have a special relationship with the gods. Some kings even claimed to be divine, or god-like. Priests and priestesses like Enheduanna lived in the city’s temples, called ziggurats.

Decline and Transformation