Geography and Environment

Two major rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, flow through the land that was Mesopotamia. Both start in the Zagros Mountains in the north and flow to the Persian Gulf in the south. The people of Mesopotamia settled in the valleys along these two great rivers. The highly fertile river valley soil allowed farming to flourish. Early societies in the region developed new irrigation or watering methods that helped them expand their farming. Around 3800 BCE, large city-states such as Eridu, Ur, and Uruk formed in southern Mesopotamia. The people who lived in this group of southern city-states were known as Sumerians. While Sumerian city-states were independent, they shared a common language and culture. The city-states in northern Mesopotamia came to be known as Akkad.

Mesopotamia was semi-arid, meaning it didn’t get much rain. But when the snows thawed in the Zagros Mountains, the rivers flooded, leaving behind fertile soil. This yearly flooding, coupled with irrigation and canal systems, made large-scale farming possible. Unfortunately, the floods were difficult to predict. Over time, the flooding and semi- arid climate contributed to a buildup of salt in the soil. The combination of flooding and rising salt content meant a city-state’s harvest could be ruined.

When harvests were good, food could be stored and traded for items that could not be found locally. Mesopotamian city-states traded items such as wheat, barley, clay, and pottery with other societies. In return, Mesopotamians received goods such as metals, wood, and stones like lapis lazuli from societies in Egypt, India, and Afghanistan.

Political Structure

The political structure of Mesopotamia was closely tied to the region’s environmental conditions. Why would environmental conditions matter politically? Well, fertile soil usually led to many valuable crops. Extra crops had to be stored and given out to people. Someone had to oversee large projects like building irrigation systems, canals, and walls to protect a city- state’s food supply. Each city-state had a ruler, usually a king, who directed these projects. Because each city- state needed access to water and land, conflicts often broke out between the city-states. So, a city-state also needed a strong ruler who commanded soldiers to protect the city. Mesopotamia’s location and lack of natural defenses, like mountains and oceans, also left it open to outside threats.

During Sargon’s reign (c. 2334 to 2279 BCE), the Akkadian Empire stretched from the Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf. To control his empire, Sargon created the first standing army. It had about 5,000 soldiers. He also made the first postal system to send messages to his officials. These reforms helped trade increase. He selected people he trusted for offices. For example, he made his daughter Enheduanna a high priestess of Ur.

After Sargon died, his male heirs reigned until 2150 BCE. At that point, a famine, or large shortage of food, weakened the empire. A nomadic people from the Zagros Mountains defeated Sargon’s dynasty. The empire broke apart as city- states reasserted their independence. But the Akkadian Empire wasn’t forgotten. Sargon served as the model ruler for future Mesopotamian kings such as Hammurabi of the Babylonian Empire and Sargon II of the Assyrian Empire.

Culture

As Mesopotamia was “the land of firsts,” it’s no surprise that this is where writing first developed, in about 3400 BCE. The Sumerians wrote on clay tablets using a script called cuneiform. Thanks to the climate of Mesopotamia, these tablets still exist. The tablets allow us to see such things as records of trade and letters that traveled along Sargon’s postal system.

The Mesopotamians also used these tablets to write stories. The first epic poem, The Epic of Gilgamesh, was written in Akkadian. It tells the story of Gilgamesh and his attempt to live forever. We don’t know the author of this epic, but as mentioned earlier, Mesopotamia holds the record for the first named author. Enheduanna (c. 2285 to 2250 BCE), priestess and daughter of Sargon, wrote poetry about gods and goddesses. She also wrote about her life. We know about Enheduanna because one of her poems was a required text that scribes copied.

Writing wasn’t the only cultural accomplishment of the Mesopotamians. The Sumerians used geometry to sur- vey land for agriculture and irrigation. Mesopotamian astronomers studied the heavens and named the five planets closest to Earth, predicted eclipses, and created zodiac signs. They even invented the 24-hour day—with 60-minute hours and 60-second minutes—that we still use today!

Society

Like most complex agrarian societies, Mesopotamian society was hierarchical, meaning it was divided into levels. The king and nobles sat atop the social pyramid along with priests and priestesses. The lower classes and enslaved were at the bottom. Nobles and those of the upper classes held a variety of jobs, such as merchants, military officers, and scribes. Most people were in the lower classes and worked as farmers, soldiers, and artisans. People were often enslaved when captured in war, but some sold themselves into slavery to pay off debts. People could buy their freedom and move up or down the social pyramid.

Mesopotamian society was also divided by gender. In general, men had the most power. However, some women held important positions. Women of the lower classes often worked as midwives, perfumers, brewers, or tavern managers.

Religion played an important role in everyday life. The king had a special relationship with the gods, and some kings claimed to be divine. Priests and priestesses like Enheduanna lived in the city’s temples, called ziggurats.

Decline and Transformation