Historians have long asked whether the development of agriculture was a step forward for humans. It’s equally important to ask another question: did all societies adopt agriculture? Actually, many communities did not begin farming right away—or at all. Agriculture did not take over fully or evenly.

Some communities began farming more than 12,000 years ago. Yet, other groups didn’t farm for thousands of years after that. Today there are still communities that do not rely primarily on farming.

In addition, farming was uneven in the sense that it wasn’t always adopted fully. Some communities did a bit of farming but remained largely nomadic. They wandered from place to place, and never settled down permanently. Other groups farmed some of the year and relied on trade at other times. Some communities that had previously farmed gave up farming. This happened, for example, in the Sahara region in Africa. Communities there were forced to stop farming as the desert spread.

Non-agricultural societies didn’t disappear after farming became common. They were still found in much of the world.

Different kinds of communities

It would be a mistake to think that communities that didn’t adopt agriculture grew nothing. Many groups did grow some crops but did not rely on them entirely. They never settled down permanently to farm the land. Others, called pastoralists, raised animals but didn’t grow plants regularly. They remained mostly nomadic. Still, others mainly foraged or hunted and gathered, as their ancestors had for thousands of years.

In the Americas, people mostly foraged and grew some plants. In coastal South America, as well as in the Baltic region of Northern Europe, large, settled communities depended on fishing.

Animals were central to nomadic pastoralists’ way of life. For pastoralist groups from the Eurasian steppe, the horse was the single most important animal. Horses provided protein in the form of dairy and sometimes meat. Their dung provided fuel, and their hides provided clothing and shelter. Horses were also the main form of transportation.

How were pastoralist groups organized socially? Like foragers, they often moved in groups of five to a dozen families. They cooperated to manage labor and to defend each other from outside groups. Some pastoralists formed small confederations. Others, like the Xiongnu in China, built empires.

In nomadic communities, gender roles were typically freer than in agricultural communities. Men usually cared for cattle or other herd animals and made weapons and other tools. They also hunted and defended the communities. Women made food and clothing and took care of small children. However, when men were absent, women took on almost all responsibilities. When the group moved, women often took down and set up dwellings. They were also trained in riding and archery, as they sometimes had to defend their communities from outsiders. Women’s graves sometimes contained weapons, suggesting they had a role in military life as well.

Networks and exchange

Both pastoralist and foraging societies partly relied on trade. Both traded with sedentary or settled, communities. Pastoralists often traded dairy, meat, and wool for agricultural products, including grains. Pastoralist nomads supplied and handled animals along the Silk Road. They also provided protection for Silk Road travelers. In the Arabian Peninsula, Arab pastoralists supplied camels and led caravans across the desert.

Non-agricultural communities were also often in conflict with sedentary farming groups. Sedentary agriculturalists tended to be part of rich societies. They were tied to their land and possessions. By contrast, nomadic communities could move about quickly and easily. This allowed nomads to attack and seize what they wanted. They could acquire agricultural products without having to farm or trade.

Of course, this angered sedentary communities. One example of a major conflict was the long-term struggle between the Chinese and neighboring pastoralist groups. Many Chinese dynasties launched huge war efforts against these nomadic groups. The Han-dynasty historian Sima Qian (c. 147–87 BCE) wrote about the northern Xiongnu in his “Records of the Grand Historian.” The Xiongnu, he said, wandered “from place to place pasturing their animals ... They move about in search of water and pasture and have no walled cities or fixed dwellings ... It is their custom to herd their flocks in times of peace and make their living by hunting, but in periods of crisis they take up arms and go off on plundering and marauding expeditions. This seems to be their inborn nature ... Their only concern is self-advantage, and they know nothing of ... righteousness.”

As we can see from this passage, Sima Qian had a very low opinion of the Xiongnu. He considered them to be thieves with no morals. Many nomadic groups were described this way by sedentary societies. However, it is wise to be critical when reading these accounts from outsiders. Nomadic groups had their own ideas of right and wrong. They were not always well understood by others. Still, the descriptions of outsiders can be very informative. They help reveal how non-agricultural communities lived, worked, and interacted with others.