Judaism
Introduction
In this fresco from the Dura-Europas synagogue built in the third century C.E. along the Euphrates River in what is now Iraq, Moses hears the voice of God calling him from a burning bush. This event is related in the Book of Exodus from the Bible, Chapter 3. Public domain.
Almost three thousand years ago, the Hebrew people formed a small kingdom in the Middle East. They lived in Canaan, between the Mediterranean and the Jordan River. They were a small community, and they were not as powerful as the empires of the era. They had a unique and rich culture, however, and have had a long and impactful history.
The Hebrews were one of the first communities to create a written record of their culture. They began writing in the late 600s BCE. They wrote down their traditions, religious beliefs, history, and laws. These were ultimately edited and brought together in the five books known as the Torah. Over time, more text was added, including advice literature, prayers, hymns, and prophecies. Altogether, they formed the Hebrew Bible.
The Hebrew Bible was the core of the Hebrews’ religion, Judaism. Judaism is a monotheistic religion, built around the idea of a single all-powerful god. The word Judaism comes from the Kingdom of Judah, the southern of the two Hebrew kingdoms. It played a larger role in development of religious traditions.
Most of what we know about the early Hebrews comes from the Hebrew Bible. For centuries, researchers have searched for records of biblical stories. Some evidence has been found, but people disagree about how to interpret it.
Religious ideas
A central idea in Judaism is the idea of the Covenant, an agreement between the Hebrews and God. According to the Hebrew Bible, the agreement was made when God first appeared to Abraham, a Hebrew tribal leader. God promised that Abraham and his descendants would be blessed if they followed him.
God next appeared to a Hebrew leader named Moses. At the time, the Hebrews were enslaved in Egypt. God helped Moses lead the Hebrews out of slavery and made another agreement with them. If they worshipped him as their only god, he would consider them his chosen people and protect them from their enemies.
Abraham and Moses were the first Hebrew prophets. After them came the prophets Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Isaiah. Much of the Hebrew Bible consists of writings in their voices, understood as messages from God.
Through the prophet Moses, God also passed down rules of behavior called the Ten Commandments. The rules have to do with both ethics and religion. They command people to be loyal and observe religious customs. They forbid things like stealing, lying, killing, swearing, and jealousy.
A complex system of laws developed from the Ten Commandments. They shaped life in ancient Hebrew communities. These laws had to do with holy days, eating and food preparation, sex, marriage, and many other aspects of life.
Ancient Jews practiced various religious ceremonies to show their devotion. These included prayer, rituals, and the study of sacred texts. They also believed that, in order to please God, they had to treat others justly and fairly. Religious leaders were important in Judaism, but devotion was also personal. The goal of religious life was to follow the instructions of God, as recorded in sacred texts.
Society and family life
The Hebrews were originally wanderers, following their herds of sheep and goats from place to place. They were organized into tribes, with each tribe consisting of related, extended families. Eventually, some tribes settled in Canaan and began farming and building cities. Over time, their community and culture started to unify.
This mosaic, from a Jewish synagogue built in the sixth century C.E. in what is now Tunisia, shows a menorah, a candelabrum used for worship, along with two of the plants used to observe the Jewish holiday of Sukkot. Ancient Jewish places of worship have been discovered in many Afro-Eurasian cities. Public domain.
The development of city life created new opportunities. People began specializing in crafts and trade, often passing down their knowledge to their children. In the country, women worked in the fields alongside their husbands. In the city, they often worked in shops.
Marriage and the family were central in Jewish life. People were expected to get married and have children. As in other ancient cultures, marriage was arranged by the families, too important to be left solely to the feelings and desires of young people. The bearing of children was seen in some ways as a religious responsibility, and family property was passed down to the firstborn son. Mothers oversaw the early education of the children, but as boys grew older, their fathers provided more of their education. Later, formal schooling developed, and some boys studied religious texts in schools or synagogues. Synagogues are places for study and prayer in Jewish communities.
Political developments and the spread of Judaism
When the Hebrews settled in Canaan, they faced many grave challenges. They soon unified under the leadership of King Saul. Next, they were led by David of Bethlehem, who captured the city of Jerusalem and made it the religious and political center of the realm.
In the tenth century BCE., David’s son Solomon is said to have launched a large-scale building program, creating cities, palaces, fortresses, and roads. The most symbolic of these projects was the Temple of Jerusalem. It was intended to be the religious heart of the kingdom, a symbol of Hebrew unity and of God’s approval of the Hebrew state.
This state did not last much longer, however. After Solomon’s death, his kingdom split in two, becoming Israel in the north and Judah in the south. War soon broke out between them, weakening both and making them vulnerable to neighboring kingdoms. In the coming years, many of the Hebrews were forced from the area, and Israel and Judah were taken over by a series of empires. Jews did not again have their own state until the foundation of Israel in the twentieth century.
Political and military developments led the Hebrews to scatter widely around the world. Jews stayed together as a community, however, through intermarriage, shared rituals, and devotion to a sacred text. They rarely tried to convert other people to Judaism, so their religion became widespread geographically but never very large in number. Today the Jewish population of the world is estimated at about 15 million.
Primary source: The book of Psalms
Ancient Hebrews believed that god was to be both feared and loved. While he would punish disobedience, god would protect and reward his followers. A hymn in the book of Psalms of the Hebrew Bible captures this idea:
Blessed is every one who fears the Lord, who walks in his ways! You shall eat the fruit of the labor of your hands; you shall be happy, and it shall be well with you. Your wife will be like a fruitful vine within your house; your children will be like olive shoots around your table. Lo, thus shall the man be blessed who fears the Lord. The Lord bless you from Zion! May you see the prosperity of Jerusalem all the days of your life! May you see your children’s children! Peace be upon Israel! (Psalms 128:1–6)
Sources
Coogan, Michael D. The Old Testament: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
Goldenberg, Robert. The Origins of Judaism: From Canaan to the Rise of Islam. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
Provan, Iain, V. Philips Long, and Tremper Longman III. A Biblical History of Israel. 2nd ed. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2015.
Merry Wiesner-Hanks
Merry E. Wiesner-Hanks is Distinguished Professor of History emerita at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, and currently the president of the World History Association. She is the author or editor of thirty books that have appeared in English, German, French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Greek, Chinese, Turkish, and Korean.
Image credits
This work is licensed under CC BY 4.0 except for the following:
Cover: The Wailing Wall, Jerusalem, Israel by Carl Werner © Photo by Fine Art Photographic Library/Corbis via Getty Images
In this fresco from the Dura-Europas synagogue built in the third century C.E. along the Euphrates River in what is now Iraq, Moses hears the voice of God calling him from a burning bush. This event is related in the Book of Exodus from the Bible, Chapter 3. Public domain. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:DuraSyn-I-O-Moses_burning_bush.jpg
This mosaic, from a Jewish synagogue built in the sixth century C.E. in what is now Tunisia, shows a menorah, a candelabrum used for worship, along with two of the plants used to observe the Jewish holiday of Sukkot. Ancient Jewish places of worship have been discovered in many Afro-Eurasian cities. Public domain. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Roman._Mosaic_of_Menorah_with_Lulav_and_Ethrog,_6th_century_C.E.jpg
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