Primary Sources: Portable Belief Systems
Introduction to this collection
This collection explores the diffusion of belief systems across trade networks from 6000 BCE to 700 CE. By studying these materials, we can better understand the expansion of various faiths and philosophies including Islam, Christianity, and Buddhism.
Guiding question to think about as you read the documents: How did belief systems impact communities and networks in this era?
WHP Primary Source Punctuation Key
When you read through these primary source collections, you might notice some unusual punctuation like this: . . . and [ ] and ( ). Use the table below to help you understand what this punctuation means.
| Punctuation | What it means |
|---|---|
|
ELLIPSES words … words |
Something has been removed from the quoted sentences by an editor. |
|
BRACKETS [word] or word[s] |
Something has been added or changed by an editor. These edits are to clarify or help readers. |
|
PARENTHESES (words) |
The original author of the primary source wanted to clarify, add more detail, or make an additional comment in parentheses. |
Contents
Source 1 – Sayings of Confucius, 475–221 BCE (0:45)
Source 2 – Ashoka’s Edicts, 268–232 BCE (4:20)
Source 3 – Edict of Milan, 313 CE (8:35)
Source 4 – Travels of Fa-Hien, 394–414 CE (12:15)
Source 5 – Conversion of Clovis, 496 CE (15:30)
Source 6 – Buddha head in Afghanistan, fifth to sixth century CE (19:10)
Source 7 – Tarik’s address to his soldiers, 711 CE (20:05)
|
Timestamps are in the source title. To locate a specific source in the audio file:
|
This document is also available as an audio file. Click Listen to audio button to access a reading of the article.
Source 1 – Sayings of Confucius, 475–221 BCE (0:45)
|
Title Confucian Analects, the Great Learning, and the Doctrine of Mean |
Date and location 475–221 BCE, China |
|
Source type Primary source – philosophical work |
Author Confucius (c. 551–479 BCE) |
|
Description Below are some selections from the thoughts of Confucius. His impact was so great that fifteen centuries later his ideas often appear in memes and classroom posters. The lines in this source come mostly from conversations. They were collected by Confucius’ students and followers, some a hundred years after he lived. |
|
|
Key vocabulary filial fraternal virtue piety |
submission humaneness resentment |
Guiding question
How did belief systems impact communities and networks in this era?
Excerpt
1:2 The philosopher Yu said, “There are few who, being filial and fraternal, are fond of offending their superiors. There have been none, who, not liking to offend their superiors, have been fond of causing disorder . . . Filial piety and fraternal submission!—are they not the root of all humane actions?”
2:1 The Master said, “He who exercises government by means of his virtue, may be compared to the north polar star, which keeps its place and all stars turn towards it.”
2:3 The Master said, “If the people be led by laws, and uniformity sought to be given them by punishments, they will try to avoid the punishment, but have no sense of shame. If they be led by virtue . . . they will have the sense of shame and moreover will become good.”
2:5 Mang E asked what filial piety was. The Master said, “It is not being disobedient.”
2:19 The duke Gae asked, “What should be done in order to secure the submission of the people?” Confucius replied, “Advance the upright and set aside the crooked, then the people will submit. Advance the crooked and set aside the upright, then the people will not submit.”
2:21 Someone said to Confucius, “Why does the Master not take part in government? The Master said, “. . . Be filial. Just being filial and friendly toward one’s brothers has its effect on government.”
12:2 Rang Yong asked about humaneness. The Master said, “When going abroad, treat everyone as if you were receiving a great guest; when employing the people, do so as if assisting in a great sacrifice. What you do not want for yourself, do not do to others. There should be no resentment in the state, and no resentment in the family.”
Citation
Legge, James, ed. The Chinese Classics: Vol. 1: Confucian Analects, the Great Learning, and the Doctrine of the Mean. London: Trubner & Co., 1861.
Source 2 – Ashoka’s Edicts, 268–232 BCE (4:20)
|
Title Ashoka’s Edicts |
Date and location 268–232 BCE, India |
|
Source type Primary source – royal decree |
Author Ashoka (died c. 232 BCE) |
|
Description Emperor Ashoka ruled over the Mauryan Empire from 268 BCE to 232 BCE. Media as we know it did not exist yet, but that didn’t stop Ashoka from getting the word out to his people. He put up dozens of messages on large rocks, cave walls, and pillars. Ashoka talked about dhamma, an idea that is shared between Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism. Dhamma is a way of life that values selflessness, compassion, and fulfilling one’s duties to the family and community. In these messages, Ashoka referred to himself as Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi. |
|
|
Key vocabulary Brahmans ascetics restraint |
|
Guiding question
How did belief systems impact communities and networks in this era?
Excerpt
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, has caused this Dhamma law to be written. Here in my domain no living beings are to be slaughtered or offered in sacrifice. . . .
In the past, for many hundreds of years, killing or harming living beings and improper behavior towards relatives, and improper behavior towards Brahmans and ascetics has increased. But now due to Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi’s Dhamma practice, the sound of the drum has been replaced by the sound of the Dhamma. . . . Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi promotes restraint in the killing and harming of living beings, proper behavior towards relatives, Brahmans and ascetics, and respect for mother, father and elders. . . .
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, desires that all religions should reside everywhere, for all of them desire self-control and purity of heart. . . .Those who are content with their own religion should be told this: Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, does not value gifts and honors as much as he values that there should be growth in the essentials of all religions.
. . .
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, conquered the Kalingas eight years after his coronation. One hundred and fifty thousand were deported, one hundred thousand were killed and many more died (from other causes). After the Kalingas had been conquered, Beloved-of-the-Gods came to feel a strong inclination towards the Dhamma, a love for the Dhamma and for instruction in Dhamma. Now Beloved-of-the-Gods feels deep remorse for having conquered the Kalingas.
Indeed, Beloved-of-the-Gods is deeply pained by the killing, dying and deportation that take place when an unconquered country is conquered. But Beloved-of-the-Gods is pained even more by this–that Brahmans, ascetics, and householders of different religions who live in those countries, and who are respectful to superiors, to mother and father, to elders, and who behave properly and have strong loyalty towards friends, acquaintances, companions, relatives, servants and employees–that they are injured, killed or separated from their loved ones. Even those who are not affected suffer when they see friends, acquaintances, companions and relatives affected. These misfortunes befall all (as a result of war), and this pains Beloved-of-the-Gods.
Citation
Dhammika, Ven. S., ed. The Edicts of King Ashoka. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society, 1993. https://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/ashoka.html
Source 3 – Edict of Milan, 313 CE (8:35)
|
Title The Edict of Milan |
Date and location 313 CE, Mediolanum, Roman Empire (present-day Milan, Italy) |
|
Source type Primary source – letters/religious decree |
Author Licinius (c. 260–325 CE) and Constantine (c. 280–337 CE) |
|
Description The Edict of Milan was an agreement between the Roman emperors Constantine and Licinuis that outlined a change of official imperial policies towards Christians in the Roman Empire. |
|
|
Key vocabulary reverence divinity provision deity |
benevolence hindrance conceded rescript |
Guiding question
How did belief systems impact communities and networks in this era?
Excerpt
When I, Constantine Augustus, as well as I Licinius Augustus fortunately met near [Milan], and were considering everything that pertained to the public welfare and security, we thought, among other things which we saw would be for the good of many, those regulations pertaining to the reverence of the Divinity ought certainly to be made first, so that we might grant to the Christians and others full authority to observe that religion which each preferred; whence any Divinity whatsoever in the seat of the heavens may be [favorable] and kindly disposed to us and all who are placed under our rule. And thus by this wholesome counsel and most upright provision we thought to arrange that no one whatsoever should be denied the opportunity to give his heart to the observance of the Christian religion, of that religion which he should think best for himself, so that the Supreme Deity, to whose worship we freely yield our hearts may show in all things His usual favor and benevolence. Therefore, your Worship should know that it has pleased us to remove all conditions whatsoever, which were in the rescripts1 formerly given to you officially, concerning the Christians and now any one of those who wishes to observe Christian religion may do so freely and openly, without [hindrance]. We thought it fit to commend these things most fully to your care that you may know that we have given to those Christians free and unrestricted opportunity of religious worship. When you see that this has been granted to them by us, your Worship will know that we have also conceded to other religions the right of open and free observance of their worship for the sake of the peace of our times, that each one may have the free opportunity to worship as he pleases. . . .
. . . in order that the statement of this decree of our good will may come to the notice of all, this rescript, published by your decree, shall be announced everywhere and brought to the knowledge of all, so that the decree of this, our benevolence, cannot be concealed.
Citation
Munro, Dana Carleton, Roland P. Falkner, Merrick Whitcomb, George L. Burr, Edward Potts Cheyney, and James Harvey Robinson, eds. Translations and Reprints from the Original Sources of European History. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1896.
1 A document or proclamation given in response to a demand from an official or citizen.
Source 4 – Travels of Fa-Hien, 394–414 CE (12:15)
|
Title A Record of Buddhist Kingdoms |
Date and location 394–414 CE, China |
|
Source type Primary source – travel narrative |
Author Fa-Hien or Fa-Hsien (337–c. 422 CE) |
|
Description Fa-Hien was a Chinese Buddhist monk. He traveled from China to India in search of Buddhist teachings and books. He visited Buddhist sites in Central, South, and Southeast Asia between 399 and 412 CE. He traveled across many of the Silk Road routes and encountered many states, including the Gupta Empire. The excerpts you’ll read below are from a travel book he wrote, called A Record of Buddhist Kingdoms. |
|
|
Key vocabulary nirvana doctrines |
stupa Hinayana |
Guiding question
How did belief systems impact communities and networks in this era?
Excerpt
The monks asked Fa-hien if it could be known when the Law of Buddha first went to the east. He replied, “When I asked the people of those countries about it, they all said that it had been handed down by their fathers from of old that, after the setting up of the image of Maitreya Bodhisattva2 there were sramans (ascetics) of India who crossed this river, carrying with them sutras and Books of Discipline. Now the image was set up rather more than 300 years after the nirvana of Buddha, which may be referred to the reign of [King Ping of Zhou]. According to this account we may say that the diffusion of our great doctrines in the east began from this image. . . . We know of a truth that the opening of the way for such a mysterious [spread] is not the work of man; and so the dream of the emperor Ming of Han had its proper cause. . . .
The travelers, going downwards from this towards the east, in five days came to the country of Gandhara, the place where Dharma-vivardhana, the son of Ashoka3 ruled. . . . they have also reared a large stupa, adorned with layers of gold and silver plate. The people of the country were mostly students of the Hinayana. . . .
Going southwards from Gandhara, in four days [they] arrived at the kingdom of Purushapura [Peshawar]. . . . Of all the stupas and temples which [they] saw in their journeyings, there was not one comparable to this in solemn beauty and majestic grandeur. . . .
There may be more than seven hundred monks . . .
Citation
Legge, James, ed. A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms Being an Account by the Chinese Monk Fa-Hien of His Travels in India and Ceylon (A.D. 399 – 414) in Search of the Buddhist Books of Discipline. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1886.
2 the future Buddha
3 Mauryan emperor
Source 5 – Conversion of Clovis, 496 CE (15:30)
|
Title Historia Francorum, or History of the Franks |
Date and location c. 575 CE, Tours (present-day France) |
|
Source type Primary source – historical work |
Author Gregory of Tours (538–594 CE) |
|
Description Clovis (c. 466–511 CE) was king of the Franks and ruled Gaul (in western Europe) before uniting the Frankish tribes under his rule, the Merovingian dynasty. His conversion to Christianity in 496 CE was a pivotal moment in the acceptance of Christianity in Europe. |
|
|
Key vocabulary fervently chieftains admonished orthodox |
prelate consecrated unction |
Guiding question
How did belief systems impact communities and networks in this era?
Excerpt
When St. Remi had preached to the King the Christian faith and taught him the way of the Cross, and when the king had known what the faith was, Chlodovocar [Clovis] promised fervently that he would henceforth never serve any save the all-powerful God. After that he said he would put to the test and try the hearts and wills of his chieftains and lesser people: for he would convert them more easily if they were converted by pleasant means and by mild words, than if they were driven to it by force; and this method seemed best to St. Remi. The folk and the chieftains were assembled by the command of the King. He arose in the midst of them, and spoke to this effect: “Lords of the Franks, it seems to me highly profitable that you should know first of all what are those gods which you worship. For we are certain of their falsity: and we come right freely into the knowledge of Him who is the true God. Know of a surety that this same God which I preach to you has given victory over your enemies in the recent battle against the Alemanni. Lift, therefore, your hearts in just hope; and ask the Sovereign Defender, that He give to you all, that which you desire—that He save our souls and give us victory over our enemies.” When the King full of faith had thus preached to and admonished his people, one and all banished from their hearts all unbelief, and recognized their Creator.
. . .
After having made his profession of the orthodox faith, the King is plunged thrice in the waters of baptism. Then in the name of the holy and indivisible Trinity—Father, Son, and Holy Ghost—the prelate consecrated him with the divine unction. Two sisters of the king and 3000 fighting men of the Franks and a great number of women and children were likewise baptized. Thus we may well believe that day was a day of joy in heaven for the holy angels; likewise of rejoicing on earth for devout and faithful men!
Citation
Gregory of Tours. History of the Franks. Translated by Ernest Brehaut. New York: Columbia University Press, 1916. This text is part of the Internet Medieval Source Book by Paul Halsall, Fordham University. https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/gregory-clovisconv.asp
Source 6 – Buddha head in Afghanistan, fifth to sixth century CE (19:10)
|
Title Buddha head |
Date and location c. fifth–sixth century CE, Afghanistan |
|
Source type Primary source – image of archaeological artifact |
Author Unknown |
|
Description The region of Gandhara, in present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan, was an intersection in the Silk Road routes. It was where a central passage through the Himalaya Mountains was located. Controlling these corridors generated a lot of wealth for the Buddhist communities in this region. The sculpture, representing Buddha, has both Mediterranean and Indian influences. |
|
Guiding question
How did belief systems impact communities and networks in this era?
Citation
Head of Buddha, fifth to sixth century. Rogers Fund, The Metropolitan Museum of Art. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/38228
Source 7 – Tarik’s address to his soldiers, 711 CE (20:05)
|
Title The Breath of Perfume |
Date and location 711 CE, Gibraltar |
|
Source type Primary source – speech |
Author Tāriq ibn Ziyād (c. 670–720 CE) as written by historian Ahmed Mohammed al-Maqqari (1577–1632) |
|
Description Tāriq ibn Ziyād was a Berber commander who initiated the Muslim imperial conquest of Visigoth Hispania on behalf of the Umayyad Caliphate from 711 to 718 CE. He led an army across the Strait of Gibraltar from the north African coast. Indeed, the name “Gibraltar” is the Spanish version of the Arabic phrase Jabal Tāriq, which means “mountain of Tāriq.” |
|
|
Key vocabulary Berber innumerable exalted |
exhort ardor |
Guiding question
How did belief systems impact communities and networks in this era?
Excerpt
Oh my warriors . . . Your enemy is before you, protected by an innumerable army; he has men in abundance, but you, as your only aid, have your own swords, and, as your only chance for life, such a chance as you can snatch from the hands of your enemy. . . .
Remember that if you suffer a few moments in patience, you will afterward enjoy supreme delight. Do not imagine that your fate can be separated from mine, and rest assured that if you fall, I shall perish with you, or avenge you. . . . The Commander of True Believers, Alwalid, son of Abdalmelik4 has chosen you for this attack from among all his Arab warriors; and he promises that you shall become his comrades and shall hold the rank of kings in this country. Such is his confidence in your [bravery]. The one fruit which he desires to obtain from your bravery is that the word of God shall be exalted in this country, and that the true religion shall be established here. The spoils will belong to yourselves.
Remember that I place myself in the front of this glorious charge which I exhort you to make. At the moment when the two armies meet hand to hand, you will see me, never doubt it, seeking out this Roderic,5 tyrant of his people, challenging him to combat, if God is willing. If I perish after this, I will have had at least the satisfaction of delivering you, and you will easily find among you an experienced hero, to whom you can confidently give the task of directing you. But should I fall before I reach Roderic, redouble your ardor, force yourselves to the attack and achieve the conquest of this country, depriving him of life. With him dead, his soldiers will no longer defy you.
Citation
Horne, Charles F., ed. The Sacred Books and Early Literature of the East. New York: Parke, Austin, & Lipscomb, 1917. This text is part of the Internet Medieval Source Book by Paul Halsall, Fordham University, and has been updated by Jerome S. Arkenberg. https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/711Tarik1.asp.
4 Al-Walid ibn Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (c. 674–715) was the sixth Umayyad caliph.
5 Roderic (d. 711 CE) was the last Visigoth king of Hispania (Spain).
Eman M. Elshaikh
Eman M. Elshaikh is a writer, researcher, and teacher who has taught K-12 and undergraduates in the United States and in the Middle East and written for many different audiences. She teaches writing at the University of Chicago, where she also completed her master’s in social sciences and is currently pursuing her PhD. She was previously a World History Fellow at Khan Academy, where she worked closely with the College Board to develop curriculum for AP World History.
Image credits
This work is licensed under CC BY 4.0 except for the following:
Cover: The Great Stupa at Sanchi, India. Originally built by Mauryan Emperor Ashoka in the third century BCE and expanded through the first century BCE. The stupa is said to house the ashes of the Buddha. © Kanus / ullstein bild via Getty Images.
Head of Buddha, fifth to sixth century. Rogers Fund, The Metropolitan Museum of Art. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/38228 Public domain.