Background

Before the late fourth century BCE, the Indian subcontinent was divided into hundreds of small kingdoms. These kingdoms were often at war with each other.

In 327 BCE, Alexander of Macedon, commonly known as Alexander the Great, and his troops entered India. They quickly overran the Punjab region. Alexander left after only two years. However, his defeat of the region’s major powers gave other groups the opportunity to seize control. The kingdom of Magadha was the first of these new powers to emerge. It had escaped being conquered by Alexander because its location was a bit out of his reach. Magadha then took advantage of the weakened Indian kingdoms when Alexander left India. Magadha also took control of trade routes.

Formation

After Magadha expanded the kingdom’s territory, Chandragupta Maurya took control. He transformed the Magadha kingdom into the Mauryan Empire. Chandragupta Maurya conquered northwestern India and Bactria (modern Afghanistan). Chandragupta Maurya unified the northern and central Indian subcontinental communities under one empire.

Administration

Chandragupta ruled from 324 to 297 BCE. He used his army to expand the empire and maintain control over it. In 305 BCE, Seleucus I Nicator of the Seleucid Empire, challenged Chandragupta. The Seleucid Empire stretched from the Mediterranean Sea all the way to northwestern India. Chandragupta raised a larger and stronger army than Seleucus. In the end, Seleucus had to sign a peace treaty with Chandragupta.

Chandragupta adopted the Persian model of satrapies (provinces) to control his empire. Spies throughout the regions collected information for the authorities.

Toward the end of Chandragupta’s reign, the Indian subcontinent was hit by famine. The emperor felt so badly for his starving subjects that he gave up the throne. His son Bindusara took over. Bindusara then expanded the borders of the empire. He died in 272 BCE. His son, Ashoka, became emperor in 268 BCE.

Ashoka grew the Mauryan Empire through military force. After one particularly bloody battle, however, he changed. Instead of violence, he wanted “conquest by dharma,” or good deeds. Dharma is a central concept in Buddhism, which considers good deeds a path to enlightenment.

Ashoka’s conquest by dharma was a revolutionary concept. This man was known to be a brutal warrior. But, Ashoka was transformed by his conversion to Buddhism. The new, gentler Ashoka devoted the rest of his rule to spreading Buddhist teachings. In fact, the spread of Buddhism became one of Ashoka’s most lasting legacies. He erected Buddhist structures across the empire. One of the most significant aspects of his conquest by dharma was his support of Buddhist missionaries. Ashoka sent missionaries to neighboring regions, helping begin the spread of Buddhism far outside the Indian subcontinent.

Like all empires, the Mauryan Empire could not last forever. Indeed, it only survived Ashoka by fifty years. But three centuries later, the Gupta Empire emerged in the same region. Sri Gupta founded this empire between 240 and 280 CE. His successors expanded their territory through conquest and marriage. Chandragupta II reigned from 380 to 415 CE. He extended the Gupta Empire across northern India. Like Ashoka, Chandragupta II centralized his government in the capital, Pataliputra. However, he let regions make their own decisions about local government. The Gupta Empire was a golden age in India, marked by peace and public safety as the arts and sciences flourished.

Religion

India’s three major religions are Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism. All three share similar practices and goals. These include fasting and vegetarianism, nonviolence, and living a simple, humble life.

Religion played a significant role in the Mauryan Empire. A Jain spiritual advisor predicted a famine during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya. The prediction came true. After that, Chandragupta embraced the beliefs of Jainism.

After Ashoka converted to Buddhism, he devoted his energies to spreading the religion. Ashoka is perhaps best known for his construction of pillars that were carved with edicts (announcements). He also built places of meditation called stupas. The pillars feature the teachings of both Ashoka and the Buddha and concentrate on respecting all life. Here are some examples:

“Rock Edict VII, King Priyadarsi wishes members of all faiths to live everywhere in his kingdom. For they all seek mastery of the senses and purity of mind. …Kalinga Edict II, King Priyadarsi says: …All men are my children. Just as I seek the welfare and happiness of my own children in this world and the next, I seek the same things for all men. Unconquered peoples along the borders of my dominions may wonder what my disposition is toward them. My only wish with respect to them is that they should not fear me, but trust me; that they should expect only happiness from me, not misery; that they should understand further that I will forgive them for offenses which can be forgiven; that they should be induced by my example to practice Dharma; and that they should attain happiness in this world and the next” (Ashoka, 51-53).

Ashoka had once been known as a cruel man. But his conversion had lasting effects on the transformation of Buddhism into a world religion.

Trade

Trade expanded greatly during the years of the Mauryan Empire. Chandragupta Maurya established a single currency, or form of money, across India. During Ashoka’s reign, political unity and peace prevailed. The government built major roadways. Trade with other regions, including Persia, quickly increased as a result of these and other improvements. India’s major exports included silk, textiles, and spices.

Women and society

In both the Mauryan and Gupta empires, Indian society was governed by a strict class system. Known as the caste system, this divided people by their family’s professions, location, and background. A person’s caste determined their rights and responsibilities.

Caste played a large role in the lives of women. Women in both Mauryan and Gupta India were often only seen as wives and mothers. Most upper-caste Indian women stayed in the home. They had less freedom of movement than women from lower castes, who left to work. Many women of lower castes worked in the textile industry. Their work generated revenue for their families. These women traded extra goods at market. The labor of these women textile workers produced many of the export goods of both empires.

As Buddhism spread throughout India under the reign of Ashoka, many women joined Buddhist nunneries. Buddhists lived outside of the caste system. They focused on overcoming desire and achieving personal growth through enlightenment. These teachings offered women a new life outside of India’s caste system.

Decline and fall

The Gupta Empire fell at the end of the fifth century CE. It collapsed after the invasion of pastoralist tribes from Central Asia, at the end of the fifth century CE. The age of Indian empires came to a close with the fall of the Gupta. India remained divided into several separate regional kingdoms until the sixteenth century CE, when the Mughal Empire conquered the subcontinent.