Background

Alexander the Great was one of history’s greatest conquerors. Egypt was one of the lands he conquered. Alexander died in 323 BCE. After his death, the Greeks remained in Egypt. They were then led by Ptolemy. He was one of Alexander’s generals. Ptolemy and his descendants built a rich and powerful empire based in Egypt. It controlled the eastern Mediterranean for 200 years.

Formation of the Ptolemaic dynasty

After Alexander died, much of his empire fell apart. But in Egypt, Ptolemy continued to rule. In 305 BCE, he declared himself Pharaoh Ptolemy I Soter. Ptolemy founded the Ptolemaic dynasty. A dynasty is a ruling family. Under the Ptolemies, Egypt became the center of a large new empire. That empire stretched from Libya to the Arabian Peninsula.

The Egyptian city of Alexandria was founded by Alexander in 332 BCE. It became the capital city of the Ptolemaic dynasty. Alexandria is on the Mediterranean coast. It was the largest of the many cities Alexander founded. It had a population of more than a half-million people.

Administration

In Ptolemaic Egypt, only Greeks held powerful positions in government and society. Greeks were covered by a different set of laws. They kept themselves apart from Egyptians. The Ptolemies avoided marrying Egyptians. Instead, they married within their own family.

The Ptolemies faced danger from other empires. The Seleucid Empire was their biggest enemy. The two empires constantly battled. These wars were expensive. This led to higher taxes on Egyptians. The Ptolemies also forced Egyptians to fight in their wars. Repeated wars and higher taxes caused unrest among Egyptians. At times there were revolts against Greek rule. These uprisings were all put down.

Religion

The Ptolemies did not try to make Egyptians change their own culture. They even paid for temples to Egyptian gods. At the same time, they mixed Egyptian and Greek religions. This helped to make Greek rule more accepted. Ptolemy I even created a new god. This god was half-Greek and half-Egyptian. He named him Serapis.

The Egyptians believed their pharaohs were living gods. The Ptolemies adopted this tradition. Ptolemy I’s son, Ptolemy II, declared himself a living god. This, too, helped to make Greek rule more acceptable.

Trade

Alexandria was a major port. It sat at the crossroads of many important trade routes. It linked the Mediterranean Sea, the Indian Ocean, Africa, and Asia. Its huge harbor could hold more than 1,000 ships. Under the Ptolemies,¹ Egypt became a major center of trade. Much of this trade involved agricultural goods. The Ptolemies owned almost half of Egypt’s rich farmland. The sale of grain and other goods helped to pay for the empire’s growth. It also made the royal family very, very rich.

Because Alexandria was a key port, all kinds of goods were funneled through Egypt. These goods came from Arabia, China, India, and Africa. From Egypt, they were distributed across the Mediterranean. Frankincense and myrrh² arrived in Egypt. They came with caravans from Arabia. Silk came from China. Cotton came from India. Indian Ocean spices came from the east aboard ships sailing the Red Sea. Ivory and gold traveled down the Nile River from inland parts of Africa.

Women in society

Ptolemaic women did not have as much power as men. But they did play an important part in religion. They joined in ceremonies and cults.³ Only rich women received an education.

Queens had almost as much power as kings. The Ptolemaic kings often married many women. In some cases, they even married their sisters. They did this to avoid mixing with Egyptians.

For example, Ptolemy II married his sister, Arsinoë II. Both were declared pharaohs. They ruled together. Other later pharaohs and queens also shared power. In Greece, this would have seemed very strange.

The most famous pharaoh of this period was Cleopatra VII. Cleopatra had a great deal of power. Her downfall came after she got in the middle of a fight between two powerful Roman leaders.

Decline and fall

Egypt was one of Rome’s main grain suppliers. In return, Rome helped protect Egypt from its enemies. But a fight between Cleopatra VII and her brother caused problems. Each wanted to be Egypt’s only ruler. A civil war broke out. The fighting interrupted the flow of grain to Rome.

Rome needed Egyptian grain. It had a growing empire to feed. Julius Caesar decided he could not allow the war to continue. He stepped in to help Cleopatra.

Eventually, Egypt became a Roman province and continued to provide grain for the empire. The Ptolemaic rule came to an end.

1 Male Egyptian rulers in this time were always named Ptolemy. Together, they are known as the Ptolemies. Don’t confuse them with another famous Ptolemy. That Ptolemy was an important astronomer. He lived during the second century CE. His ideas were accepted for many hundreds of years. Copernicus and Galileo proved him wrong.
2 Both frankincense and myrrh are resins from trees. They are used to make perfumes and incense.
3 The word “cult” sometimes has a bad meaning. Here, it simply means a smaller religion or belief system.