Introduction

Over much of China’s 4,000-year history, a series of dynasties ruled the area. The same basic structure existed from the Shang Dynasty, founded in 1600 BC to the last dynasty of China, the Qing, which fell in 1911 CE. The Republic of China was created after its fall. Under the dynasty system, the emperor had supreme control and Chinese territory was divided into different provinces governed by a large bureaucracy. Agriculture was the primary economic activity and was essential to feed China’s large and expanding population. Each dynasty rose, flourished, declined, and fell. During most of the time in-between dynasties, rebels, or warlords fought for control. Each dynasty, however, differed in how well it maintained control and for how long. Some maintained control for hundreds of years, which allowed for times of economic growth. Others failed after only a few decades.

The rise of the Tang

The Sui Dynasty (581-618 CE) secured China’s borders after years of turmoil. Eventually, it lost control in a rebellion that gave rise to the Tang Dynasty. The first emperor of the Tang, Li Yuan, (Emperor Gaozu)¹ was from a noble family that lived in the northwest border area of China. To justify his overthrow of the Sui, he claimed to be a direct descendant of Laozi, the founder of Daoism. Li Yuan named himself Emperor Gaozu. His son would later force Gaozu off the throne and murder his two brothers to become Emperor Taizong. He embraced Buddhism and spread it throughout China. Now China had three belief systems: Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism.

Empress Wu and China’s “Golden Age”

Taizong fell in love with one of his concubines, named Wu Zetian. After Taizong died, Wu became a concubine of his son, the Emperor Gaozong. When Gaozong fell ill, Wu ruled from behind the scenes. She upset traditional gender roles and declared herself emperor in 690 CE, beginning a new dynasty, the Zhou. The name linked her reign with the famed Zhou Dynasty that had ruled China for 800 years from 1022 to 256 BCE. However, her new Zhou Dynasty ended in 705, and Tang rule continued. She was the only woman to ever be emperor in all of Chinese history.

Some historians paint her as a negative figure who disregarded Confucian teachings in favor of Buddhism. However, Wu did use the ideas of Confucius in her changes. She reformed the education system so that teachers would be trained and started exams for the military to ensure officers were intelligent and well trained.

She reopened the Silk Road trade routes after they were closed because of disease and raids. Foreign goods and ideas flowed into China, influencing its culture. In turn, Chinese traditions, goods, and ideas spread to other areas of Afro-Eurasia. Chinese gunpowder and new printing techniques, as well as tea and silk, became common in other areas. Buddhism thrived and spread as monks made pilgrimages to India and translated Buddhist texts.

As the economy grew, so did the population. From the seventh to the tenth century, the Chinese population went from 50 to 100 million. China under the Tang also established a strong trading presence on the seas. Exchanges on overland routes such as the Silk Road and the Grand Canal, the system of canals that connected inland Chinese waterways, also helped the Chinese economy.

Many people call this period a “golden age” in Chinese history, and there’s lots of evidence to support the idea that this was a time of great learning and prosperity overall. Of course, just as we have to question the idea of “dark ages”, we should question the idea of golden ages. This was not a great period for everyone, and especially not for some conquered people who were forced to change their cultures and pay tribute.

Decline and fall

By the ninth century, however, cracks began to appear in the Tang Dynasty’s hold over the region. Traditionalists became worried about the power and influence of foreigners. Tang leaders began to restrict both foreigners and trade. Thriving businesses controlled by Buddhist monasteries were shut down, and Buddhist monks and nuns were persecuted. The fall of the Tang Dynasty was followed by a period of war and civil unrest known as the Five Dynasties (907-960 CE).

The creation of the Ming Dynasty

China faced more ups and downs as the centuries progressed. The Song Dynasty ruled China from 960 to 1269 CE, when the nomadic Mongols gained control and established the Yuan Dynasty under Kublai Khan. Some scholars view the Mongols as outsiders who simply took over. Other historians say the Mongols blended their traditions with Chinese culture. They say the Mongols can’t be seen simply as invaders who harmed China, but as a group that brought diversity to the country. In 1368, the Mongols were defeated by the last Han Dynasty, the Ming (1368-1644 CE).

Under the Ming, ocean trade was greatly expanded. Chinese explorer Zheng He organized voyages in the Indian Ocean in the 1400s. His ships were much larger than those of Christopher Columbus. One ship carried 500 people along with goods for trade. Zheng He even reached the east coast of Africa. Chinese explorers wanted to improve trade, rather than conquer new colonies.

Expansion of agriculture and trade

Ming emperors wrote laws and strengthened the government. Civil servants were hired based upon abilities rather than family lines. Farm production was increased with massive irrigation projects. The Chinese began producing iron at an amazing rate, making durable tools and weapons. This was also the period when most of the construction of the border protection known as the Great Wall was completed.

The first Ming emperor, Hongwu, was born into a poor family. After leading a successful rebellion against the Mongols, he redistributed land to the poor and gave soldiers land so that in times of peace, they would farm. Agricultural production went way up. The population of China grew from 65 million to 160 million by its end. Hongwu believed that farming should be the basis of the economy, and he restricted trade.

Yet, after the Europeans occupied the Americas, new crops and goods were introduced into China such as peanuts and sweet potatoes—and Europeans hoped to sell even more to China.

Initially, the Chinese were not interested in what the Europeans were selling. But when the Spanish found silver in the Americas, it began their way into China. In turn, the Chinese became dependent on Spanish silver. When the Spanish began reducing the supply of silver, an economic crisis hit the region. These economic problems coupled with famines weakened China and the Ming emperors struggled to maintain control. People were starving and rebellions increased in number, leading to the end of the Ming Dynasty’s rule in China.

¹ You may catch that this guy had the same name, “Gaozu” as the founder of the Han Dynasty. This was on purpose. Neither one was originally named Gaozu. It was a Dynastic name that they took, upon becoming emperor. The Tang Gaozu chose it specifically to make people connect him to the Han Dynasty founder, who was well respected.