Religious Successors of Rome

For centuries, the Roman Empire dominated the Mediterranean Sea. People probably believed the empire would last forever, but over time, the empire declined and then split.

Following the empire’s decline in the 400s CE, three new large communities emerged in the region. Religion was central to them. One successor was Islam. Followers of Islam established a caliphate that later conquered a large portion of Roman territory. The other two were the Byzantine Empire in the east and many states practicing Roman Catholicism in the west.

The communities of Western Europe in this period are known as Latin Christendom. The eastern region of Europe formed a Christian state around the city of Byzantium (Constantinople). This is oftentimes known as Byzantine Christendom. The Christian faith became a network that linked the entire region together. People could travel and trade across the region, even though they may not have spoken the same language.

Latin Christendom and the Empire of Byzantium shared one Christian faith. However, they developed different religious traditions and societies.

Byzantium and the beginnings of religious schism

Unlike Latin Christendom, Byzantium remained unified during most of this period. One of the most important early rulers of Byzantium was the emperor Justinian, who ruled from 527 to 565 CE. Theodora was Justinian’s wife and his most important advisor. Theodora and Justinian wanted the emperor to control all aspects of the state and the church.

Religious differences emerged between the Byzantine practice of Christianity and that of Latin Christendom. One of the most important disputes revolved around the nature of Jesus. The eastern church believed that Jesus was the son of God and therefore of two natures—one divine or godly and one human. The western church also believed that Jesus was the son of God. But they believed that both God and Jesus had existed for all of eternity. Therefore, both God and Jesus had a divine nature. Justinian called a council of church leaders together to resolve these differences, but they could not. There were also divisions based on language. Eastern Christians spoke Greek and western Christians spoke Latin. The churches had different traditions about married priests. They also used different types of bread for the Eucharist.

In the 700s, there was a dispute about icons, or artistic images of Christ, Mary, and the saints. This division became known as the iconoclasm controversy. Leo III banned images of Christ or Mary in Byzantium. These images meant everything to Eastern Orthodox Christians. At a time when many could not read, icons allowed people from all social classes to participate in Christianity. The ban was eventually lifted, but not until the mid-800s. By that time iconoclasm had created even more tension between the two churches of the east and west.

Latin Christendom as a new community

Around 700 CE, a new dynasty arose. The dynasty almost re-created the old Roman empire in Western Europe. The new ruling family was the Carolingians. They mixed Germanic culture and Christian faith. Unlike the Byzantine empire, the Christian rulers in Western Europe did not control religious beliefs. That was the pope’s job. On Christmas Day in the year 800 CE, Pope Leo III crowned the Carolingian ruler Charlemagne “emperor of the Romans.” This affirmed the pope’s authority to crown emperors and declared separation from Byzantine control. Tensions between the west and east were nearing a breaking point.

By the 1000s, Latin Christendom was experiencing a new wave of religious enthusiasm. Many new churches arose. People would travel great distances to visit shrines dedicated to Christian saints.

Yet this enthusiasm endangered religious minority groups. Bursts of anti-Semitic violence threatened Jewish groups. Peaceful pilgrimages became armed crusades against the so-called “enemies of Christ.” These enemies often included Jews, Muslims, and even members of the Byzantine church. These crusades united the communities of Latin Christendom. They wanted to reclaim the Holy Land (Jerusalem) from Muslim rule. However, the crusaders often attacked Jews and other minority groups.

The Byzantium and Latin Christendom network splits

By the 1000s, Byzantine and Latin forms of Christianity were quite different. Both sides wanted to prevent the other form from spreading. The pope began closing churches in Italy that were aligned with the eastern faith. The Byzantine head of church responded by closing Roman churches in Byzantium. Each religious figure excommunicated the other.

In 1054 CE the two churches officially broke apart in what is known as the Great Schism. Now there were two Christian faiths: Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy.

Religious and non-religious rulers all actively promoted the Crusades. These holy wars dominated the 1100s and 1200s. Thousands of ordinary people from all over Latin Christendom walked over 2,000 miles through Europe and the Byzantine empire to reach the Holy Land. Many others traveled overseas. They were driven by religious enthusiasm and the promise of new land. This campaign united Latin Christendom and even mending the division between eastern and western Christianity for a time. Yet the truce didn’t last long. During the fourth Crusade, Latin crusaders sacked the Eastern Orthodox city of Constantinople.