Introduction

The Age of Enlightenment, or the Age of Reason, was a movement in the 1700s that transformed politics, philosophy, and science. Enlightenment thinkers challenged traditional authority. Many societies around the world pursued sovereignty after the Enlightenment. Sovereignty is the right of a person or a nation to govern themselves.

Sovereignty is a broad term. It influences many modern concepts such as identity, individuality, and rationality (the use of reason). These ideas developed together during the long nineteenth century, which refers to the time between the Enlightenment (c. 1750) and World War I (1914). Without the concept of sovereignty, these ideas would make no sense.

Sovereignty and liberal ideals

There was a growing distrust in the authority of monarchs and churches during the long nineteenth century. There was more interest in individualism, freedom, and rationality. Supporters of popular sovereignty believed that the people are the source of a state’s power. The government must represent the needs and ideas of the people.

Before the Enlightenment, many European countries were ruled by absolute monarchies, which means that a king or queen has total control. The people are subjects who have to obey the ruler. Under popular sovereignty, the people are citizens who have political rights and power. This meant that popular sovereignty encouraged individual rights.

Believe it or not, it was once unusual to suggest that common individuals deserved to govern themselves. Today we may take this for granted, but at the time this was a new concept.

Sovereignty for whom?

Popular sovereignty does not mean that people are all treated equally. Although citizens had rights, that didn’t necessarily mean that all citizens had the same rights. People could have different rights based on their class, race, and gender. People who were conquered or enslaved didn’t become full citizens. Working-class people and women weren’t given the same kinds of rights as wealthy men. In other words, the right of self-governing was only given to a small part of society.

In many ways, the achievement of sovereignty for some resulted in the loss of freedom for others. For example, the United States gained its independence from Great Britain, but kept slavery legal. Enslaved people were not given the rights of citizens. In fact, under the Constitution, each enslaved person was counted as three-fifths of a full citizen. It is one of history’s most literal and glaring examples of inequality.

Women, workers, and children

Children of the lower classes were also not treated equally. Middle- and upper-class families in Europe and the Americas were able to educate their children instead of putting them to work. Under slavery and colonialism, however, children were forcibly separated from their parents. Children in Latin America, sub- Saharan Africa, the Middle East, and India were forced to work under harsh conditions in plantations, factories, and mines.

Women were also often left out when it came to personal sovereignty. Some Enlightenment thinkers still saw women as lesser than men, while others pushed for women’s equality. Conditions for women could be different based on race, class, and region. Privileged women had new social and educational opportunities, but women of lower classes did not. Many single mothers had to work to support their families.

Citizenship and the modern subject

These cultural and social shifts were about much more than just a single issue. The way people lived under a state with popular sovereignty was changing. Some people found that the state now gave them freedom, while others found they had less control. For example, women had a bigger role in educating children, so they had to be educated, too. Motherhood became a political act! This created new opportunities for women. It also meant that a woman’s decision whether to have children at all was not necessarily hers to make.

Children were also controlled more, partly through schools. The schools helped and protected children, but they also controlled their daily activity. In Canada, Australia, and the United States, governments often forced the children of native people into boarding schools. The students were forced to change their behaviors and let go of their native customs.

Enlightenment ideas about citizenship, sovereignty, and autonomy changed the face of the globe. It’s important to remember that these changes were very uneven. Different groups of people have been included and excluded from these values. However, these ideas surrounding personal sovereignty have continued to influence many political institutions to this day.