Total War: Definition and Debate

World War I is often referred to as the first “total war.” This term described the size and devastation of the war. It also showed how the war included soldiers and civilians. In 1917, French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau explained the meaning of total war. “My foreign policy and my home policy are the same,” he said. “At home I wage war. Abroad I wage war.”

The idea of “total war” involves four things. First, there was great mobilization. This refers to gathering troops and weapons. The second is that it involves both soldiers and civilians. The third is that each side refuses to compromise to reach peace. The fourth is the total control of society by a government. We can see parts of each in World War I. We also see these four things in the social, political, economic, and environmental effects of the war.

Mobilization and the blurring of roles between soldier and citizen

Mobilization for World War I was larger than anything before. Millions of men volunteered to fight. Women volunteered as military nurses and aides. Many working-class women made weapons. Civilians took part by housing soldiers or buying war bonds.

Governments and private industries worked together in the war effort. Factories shifted their production from pre- war industries. In the war, most factories created war supplies. Agricultural businesses fed soldiers and civilians. These businesses also improved military technology. New military inventions included tanks and gas masks. Two- way radios and mobile x-ray machines were also invented.

All the major warring countries used conscription, or a military draft. This system allows the government to force people to become soldiers. Historian Kimberly A. Redding says:

Some 65,000,000 men were mobilized between 1914 and 1918. While not all saw frontline service, the casualty rate (killed, wounded, and missing in action as a percentage of those mobilized) was over 50 percent among Austro- Hungarian, Australian, Bulgarian, French, German, Russian, and ANZAC forces. 8.5 million soldiers died and at least twice that number were wounded. Of these, at least 9.5 million were considered permanently disabled….

The violence of war took a toll. War even increased the devastation of illness. When the flu broke out in 1917-1918, the movement of troops and workers made it spread quickly. As a result, 3-5% of the world’s population died. The flu affected members of the military and civilians alike.

Complete destruction of the enemy

The Hague Conventions were created in 1899 and 1907. These outlined rules for war. Many rules were broken during World War I. For example, the Hague Conventions outlawed poison gas. But both Allied and Axis powers used it. Another rule stated that war cannot begin without clear warning. The German invasion of Belgium violated that rule.

There was a “total war” approach in which each side wanted to destroy the other. Large weapons were fired. Chemicals weapons were used. Any compromise to end the war was rejected. These were startling actions for Europe.

World War I raised many moral questions about technology in war. The Germans sank the British ship RMS Lusitania. The ship carried civilian passengers. It also was bringing ammunition to the Allies. Many saw this sinking as a symbol of new extremes of war.

New technology led many to believe the war would be more effective. As historians J.R. and William McNeill explain:

Military medicine had progressed to the point where doctors could keep gigantic armies free of epidemics long enough that they could engage in the prolonged slaughter of trench warfare. Heavy artillery and poison gas made life in the trenches living hell, while the machine gun made climbing out of them extremely lethal.

Total control of society

War affected all areas of society. Private companies earned massive profits supporting the war. European landscapes were marked with trenches and craters from bombs. Toxic poison filled the countryside.

The environment was harmed by the war’s industrialization. European countries mined for raw materials around the world. Trees were cut down in Lebanon, India, and the United States. Oil came from Mexico, the U.S. and the Middle East. Historian Tait Keller says, “People far from the fighting felt the war in their everyday lives through its long environmental reach.”

Governments also became more involved in civilians’ lives. They censored the press and passed laws against minority communities. Food, and people’s diets, became more controlled. The government regulated food production and the amount people received.

Tensions built as the war dragged on within countries. It resulted in revolutions in Russia and the Ottoman Empire. In other places, the war created unrest. New social movements formed across national borders.

World War I showed rapid growth in four areas during the “long nineteenth century.” These included industrialization, imperialism, international connections, and conflicts. The effects of this war were felt for years. The young people who saw their friends die on the battlefield were often called the “lost generation.” Gertrude Stein created the term when writing to Ernest Hemingway: “’That’s what you are. That’s what you all are. All of you young people who served in the war. You are a lost generation.’”