Source Collection: The Mongols
Document 1
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Author |
Ala-ad-Din Ata- Malik Juvaini (1226–1283) |
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Date and location |
c. 1260, Persia or Central Asia |
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Source type |
Primary source—historical work |
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Description |
Ala-ad-Din Ata- Malik Juvaini was a Persian civil servant and historian who worked for the Mongol Empire. He wrote a history of the Mongol Empire called Tarīkh-i Jahān-gushā (History of the World Conqueror). |
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Citation |
McCullough, David Willis, ed. Chronicles of the Barbarians: Firsthand Accounts of Pillage and Conquest from the Ancient World to the Fall of Constantinople. Times Books, 1998. |
When Chinggiis Khan’s cause prospered... he dispatched envoys to other tribes... all [who submitted were]... admitted to the number of his commanders... and were regarded with... indulgence and favor; as for the rebellious, he struck... with... the sword of annihilation until all tribes were one color and obedient to [him]... he established new laws and laid the foundations of justice and [abolished their vile customs]...
When tribes became his army, he dispatched ambassadors to [China], and... went there [himself]... and subjugated the country... [and] conquered other kingdoms...
[When] he took Bokhara and Samarqand, he slaughter[ed] and loot[ed] once only, and did not... massacre. As for the adjoining territories subject to these towns or border[ing] them... the hand of molestation was... withheld. Afterwards, the Mongols pacified the survivors and proceeded with... reconstruction, so that at the prosperity... of these districts have... attained their original level [or] have closely approached it...
Of the Qanqli no male was spared... whilst... small children, the children of.... nobles and... womenfolk... were [enslaved]...
When the town and the citadel had been purged of rebels and the walls... levelled…, all the inhabitants of the town... were driven out... [he] spared their lives, but the youths and full-grown men that were fit for such service were pressed into a levy for the attack on Samarqand and Dabusiya.
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Glossary Prospered: grew wealthy and powerful |
Document 2
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Author |
Marco Polo (1254–1324) and Rustichello da Pisa (late thirteenth century) |
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Date and location |
1271–1291, Venice |
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Source type |
Primary source—travel narrative |
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Description |
A description of the great city of Kinsay (Hangchow) which is the capital of the whole country of Manzi (South China). In this excerpt, Marco Polo describes the ways the Mongols maintain loyalty, law, and trade. |
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Citation |
Polo, Marco. “Marco Polo in China (1271–1295).” Asia for Educators. Accessed July 27, 2019. https://afe.easia.columbia.edu/mongols/pop/menu/class_marco.htm#cambaluc-ii |
… The Great Khan occupied the city... [and]... ordained that each of the 12,000 bridges be [guarded with] ten men, in case of... disturbances or of any.... rebellion.
Part of the watch patrols the quarter, to see if any... fire is burning after... lawful hours; if they find any, they mark the door... the owner is summoned... and unless he can plead a good excuse he is punished... if they find anyone [in] the streets at unlawful hours they arrest him... if they find any poor cripple unable to work..., they take him to the hospital... founded by the ancient kings, and endowed with great revenues.... if he be capable of work they oblige him to [work]... If they see... any house... [catch] fire they immediately give the alarm, and this brings the watchmen from the other bridges to help extinguish it, and to save the goods of the merchants or others.... those watchmen who flock to help... come one or two thousand...
The Khan watches this city with special diligence because it forms the head of this part of China... he has an immense revenue from the taxes levied on the trade here, the amount of which is so high no one would believe...
All the streets of the city are paved with stone or brick you ride and travel in every direction without inconvenience...
It is... the custom for... every person... to write over his door his own name, [and] the name of all in his house, and... the number of animals... he keeps.... so the ruler... [knows the exact] population... throughout the country.
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Glossary Endowed: to be provided with something, such as money |
Document 3
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Author |
Anonymous |
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Date and location |
c. 1250, Central Asia |
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Source type |
Primary source—historical work |
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Description |
This is one of the only histories of the Mongols written in Mongolian. It is also one of the most famous. It is a written epic of the Mongols, which was likely compiled during the thirteenth century. It describes the origins of the Mongols, with a particular focus on Chinggis Khan. |
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Citation |
Onon, Urgunge, ed. The Secret History of the Mongols: The Life and Times of Chinggis Khan. Translated, edited and with an introduction by Urgunge Onon. Curzon, 2001. |
Chinggis [Khan] prepared for battle with the Tatars at Dalan-nemürges: the Chaqa’an Tatars, the Alchi Tatars, the Duta’ut [Tatars], and the Aluqai Tatars. Before joining battle, Chinggis [Khan] discussed the battle orders [before his soldiers]: ‘If we triumph over the enemy, let us not stop for booty. When we have completed our victory, will the booty not be ours?...
[Then] we will divide it among ourselves. If the enemy forces us to retreat, let us return to the place where we began our attack. Those who do not do so will be executed.’ In this way, he gave his orders...
After wiping out the Tatars and plundering everything, Chinggis... [arranged] a great council of his clan to decide what to do with the [Tatar] people. They entered a single yurt and conferred. ‘From early days the Tatars have destroyed our ancestors and fathers. [We must] gain vengeance on behalf of our fathers, we must seek revenge for our ancestors. Let them be killed. We will measure them against a linchpin and kill off [those who are taller than the linchpin] until all have died. We will make slaves of the survivors. We will divide them among ourselves, some here, some there.’...
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Glossary Booty: things taken from people in war; loot |
Document 4
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Author |
Ruy González de Clavijo |
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Date and location |
1403, Spain |
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Source type |
Primary source—travel chronicle |
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Description |
Ruy González de Clavijo was a Spanish ambassador to Timur’s court at Samarqand. On May 22, 1403, Clavijo and his staff embarked on a three-year trip to Samarqand and back. In this excerpt, de Clavijo describes the robust, wealthy, and cosmopolitan city of Samarqand, thriving under Mongol rule. |
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Citation |
Levi, Scott Cameron, and Ron Sela, eds. Islamic Central Asia: An Anthology of Historical Sources. Indiana University Press, 2010. |
Every year to the city of Samarqand much merchandise of all kinds came from Cathay, India, Tartary... for in the countries round... Samarqand... commerce is... flourishing; but there was... no place within the city where this merchandise might be... stored, displayed, and offered for sale. Timur... gave orders that a street should be built to pass right through Samarqand, which should have shops opened on either side... in which every kind of merchandise should be sold, and this new street was to go from one side of the city... to the other side, traversing... the township.
As soon as these shops were made ready, they were occupied by merchants selling goods of all sorts... Thus in... twenty days the whole new street was carried through...
The richness and abundance of this great capital and its district is... a wonder to behold: and... for this reason... it bears the name of Samarqand... “Rich-Town,”... this land is... rich in food stuffs... also in manufactures, such as factories of silk... Thus trade has always been fostered... with the view of making this capital the noblest of cities... the population now of all nationalities gathered together in Samarqand that of men with their families... they said must amount to 150,000 souls... The population of Samarqand was so vast that lodging for them all could not be found in the city limits, nor in the streets and open spaces of the suburbs and villages... and hence they were... quartered temporarily... in the caves and in tents... The markets of Samarqand further are amply stored with merchandise imported from distant and foreign countries.
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Glossary Flourish: to grow strong and rich |
Document 5
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Author |
Rashīd al- Dīn (1247–1318) |
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Date and location |
c. 1300–1310 CE, Mongol Empire (Iran) |
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Source type |
Primary source—historical work |
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Description |
Rashid al-Din was one of the most powerful advisors of the Mongol Ilkhan Ghazan (r. 1295–1304). He wrote a history of the Mongols and positioned Ghazan as the Islamic leader of the empire. |
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Citation |
Al-Dīn, Rashīd. Jami’ al-Tawarikh (Compendium of Chronicles), c. 1306 CE. University of Edinburgh Library OR.Ms.20, folios 62 and 69. |
Document 6
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Author |
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Date and location |
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Source type |
These maps depict trade routes and warfare in the Mongol Empire during approximately the same periods. It may be useful to consider them together. |
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Description |
Ibn al-Wardi was an Arab historian and geographer. He described his experiences and observations of the plague in Syria in 1348. He himself died of the plague after writing the essay excerpted below. In his essay, Ibn al-Wardi also discussed the plague’s effects in China, which is one of the only records we have that describes the plague in East Asia. He spoke with merchants who claimed to have traveled to the east who told him about the plague infecting this region. There is, however, a debate as to when the plague began in China. New research has shown that there was an epidemic in the thirteenth century during the Mongol conquest of northern China. There is limited evidence that the fourteenth-century plague dramatically affected China. The fourteenth century was a period of transition and civil war in China and documentary evidence is difficult to confirm. |
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Citation |
OER Project. “1200 CE Black Death and Mongols Thematic Map.” 2019. |