State and religion

Government and religion have both played a big part in human history. They might seem to have very different roles. Yet, they have usually been quite closely connected. Religious figures were often among the most learned and skilled people in society. Many worked as advisors to rulers or as government officials. Rulers often provided money and support to churches and temples. Sometimes, rulers were seen as religious leaders themselves. Often, they claimed to have the support of God or the gods. Of course, at other times religious leaders and state rulers fought against each other. All of these kinds of relationships existed in the period c. 1200–1450 CE. Let’s look at some examples.

The Islamic world

The relationship between state and religion was often very strong in the Islamic world. Between the seventh and tenth centuries, the area in which Islam was practiced was like a single state. This was known as the Caliphate. By 1200, things had changed. There was no longer a single unified Islamic sphere. Islam had spread across a much larger area. It now stretched from West Africa to parts of Southeast Asia. Different Islamic states each had their own ruler.¹

Islam also wasn’t a single religious faith in this period. Most Muslims were members of the Sunni sect. Muslims living in Persia were often members of the Shi’a sect. These two sects often disagreed about who should govern and how to interpret religious texts. Across the Islamic world, Muslim thinkers and scholars served as judges. They helped rulers keep order within society. In return, rulers paid for Islamic schools and temples.

However, Islamic thought could also inspire some to oppose the state. One Islamic movement called Sufism emphasized personal religious experience. It stressed brotherhood rather than obedience to authorities. Many Muslim rulers saw the growing Sufi movement as a danger. They began cracking down on Sufis.

Religious pluralism in South and Southeast Asia

In the period c. 1200–1450 CE, Hinduism and Buddhism were two of the biggest religions in the world. Both arose first in South Asia. Hindus worship many gods rather than only one. Hinduism was based on older practices from northern India. It developed a powerful priestly class. It spread as far as Southeast Asia by about 200 CE.

Buddhism emerged in the sixth century BCE. It developed in the same region and from the same roots as Hinduism. However, Buddhists took a very different approach. For them, each person had to find their own path to the truth. The focus was not on gods or priests. Buddhism spread quickly into Southeast Asia. It then traveled to China, Korea, and Japan. Over time it took on many different forms.

For rulers in South Asia, Hinduism was the more useful religion. In India, kings supported Hindu temples and religious orders. Hindu priests and rulers became closely allied.

In Southeast Asia, many rulers became Buddhists. These rulers set up Buddhist monasteries. Monks and nuns from the monasteries gained a great deal of political influence.

The Chinese model

In China, Buddhism had become very important by the time of the Song Dynasty (960–1279 CE). It existed alongside Daoism, a religion focused on nature. Neither religion emphasized obedience to the state. That made Chinese governments not trust them.

The Song Dynasty government did not support either religion. Instead, it pushed Confucianism. This thought system was based on the ideas of Confucius. He was a thinker from the fifth century BCE. Confucius’s ideas were collected in the Analects. This book emphasized the importance of obeying those of higher social rank. It was especially important for subjects to obey and honor their ruler. The relationship between ruler and subject was like the relationship between Heaven and Earth.

Christendom

Religious leaders and rulers also formed close ties in Christian Europe. This was especially true in the Byzantine Empire. Byzantine emperors and the religious leaders of the Orthodox Church worked quite closely together. Many Orthodox priests served in the government.

In Catholic Europe, as well, rulers relied on priests and monks. Priests urged people to obey their kings and princes. Such rulers were believed to rule with God’s approval. The two leaderships also cooperated on religious wars, or crusades. These were directed against Muslims and other non-Christians.

However, there was also division within the Catholic world. The Catholic popes were political figures as well as religious leaders. Often, they competed with kings. Popes could charge taxes. They could raise armies of their own. They also had another powerful weapon. They could expel, or excommunicate, people from the Catholic Church. Excommunicated rulers faced a big risk. Their Catholic subjects might rebel against them. In the mid-thirteenth century, the Holy Roman Emperors were the most powerful rulers of central Europe. They fought with the Catholic pope for influence. Emperor Frederick II was excommunicated by Pope Innocent IV in 1239. In return, Frederick expelled many priests from his lands.

In general, however, church and state had a cooperative relationship. Christianity was very important to the population. Priests were very useful to rulers. Both of these things prevented a permanent break from happening.

The Bantu-speaking world

In sub-Saharan Africa, rulers were also closely tied to belief systems. This was true across the Bantu-speaking world. This vast region included central, southern, and eastern Africa. Islam did not reach this part of Africa. In most cases, there were no separate religious leaders here. Instead, communities shared a common set of beliefs. These beliefs were focused on ancestors and spirits. Many Bantu-speaking states were confederations, or unions, made up of several communities. The rulers of these confederations used shared beliefs to unify the different groups.

The Mongols

The Mongols created a huge empire through conquest. The peoples they conquered included Buddhists, Muslims, Christians, and Jews. The Mongols had their own traditional religious beliefs. However, they quickly adjusted to their new surroundings. In the center and south of the Mongol Empire, many converted to Islam. In China, many Mongol leaders adopted Buddhism. In the west, some Mongol leaders became Christians.

Mongol rulers allowed many different religious to coexist. They supported temples and churches of many different faiths. Scholars disagree on why this was done. Some say it was a way to keep a huge empire peaceful. Others see it as a form of insurance. In other words, Mongol rulers supported all faiths just in case one turned out to be the “true” religion.

1 Rulers of later states like the Ottoman Empire claimed to be Caliphs—spiritual leaders of all Muslims—right up to the twentieth century. But they didn’t really have that power or authority.