State and religion

Government and religion have both played a big part in human history. While they might seem to have very different roles, they have usually been quite closely connected. Religious figures were often among the most learned and skilled people in society. Many worked as advisors to rulers and as government officials. Rulers often provided money and support to churches and temples. Sometimes, rulers were seen as religious leaders themselves. Often, they claimed to have the support of God or the gods. At other times, of course, religious leaders and state rulers clashed with each other. All of these kinds of relationships existed in the period c. 1200–1450 CE. Let’s look at some examples.

The Islamic world

The relationship between state and religion was often very strong in the Islamic world. Between the seventh and tenth centuries, the area in which Islam was practiced was like a single state. It was known as the Caliphate. By 1200, however, there was no longer a single unified Islamic sphere. Islam had spread across a much larger area, stretching from West Africa to parts of Southeast Asia. Political authority was now divided among lots of different states.1

Islam also wasn’t a single religious faith in this period. Most Muslims were members of the Sunni sect. Muslims living in Persia were often members of the Shi’a sect. These two sects often disagreed about who should govern and how to interpret religious texts. Across the Islamic world, Muslim thinkers and scholars served as qadi, or judges. They helped sultans and other rulers keep order within society. In return, the rulers paid for Islamic schools and temples.

However, Islamic thought could also inspire some to oppose the state. One Islamic religious movement, known as Sufism, emphasized personal spiritual experience. It stressed equality and brotherhood rather than obedience to authorities. Many Muslim rulers saw the growing Sufi movement as a danger. They began cracking down on Sufis.

Religious pluralism in South and Southeast Asia

In the period c. 1200–1450 CE, Hinduism and Buddhism were two of the biggest religions in the world. Both arose first in South Asia. Hinduism is a polytheistic faith, meaning that Hindus worship many gods rather than only one. Hinduism was based on older practices from northern India. It developed a powerful priestly class, the brahmins. Hinduism spread as far as Southeast Asia by about 200 CE.

Buddhism emerged in the sixth century BCE. It developed in the same region and from the same set of older practices as Hinduism. However, Buddhists took a very different approach. Buddhism emphasized personal pathways to enlightenment, rather than gods and the authority of priests. Buddhism spread quickly into Southeast Asia and then to China, Korea, and Japan. Over time it took on many different forms.

For rulers in South Asia, Hinduism proved to be the more useful religion. In India, kings supported Hindu temples and religious orders. As a result, Hindu priests (brahmins) and rulers became closely allied.

In Southeast Asia, many rulers became Buddhists. These rulers set up Buddhist monasteries. Monks and nuns from the monasteries gained quite a bit of political influence.

The Chinese model

In China, Buddhism had become very important by the time of the Song Dynasty (960–1279 CE). It existed alongside Daoism, a belief system focused on nature. Neither of these two belief systems emphasized obedience to the state. That made them troublesome, as far as governments were concerned.

Rather than either of these religions, the Song Dynasty government promoted Confucianism. This thought system was based on the ideas of Confucius, a fifth century BCE thinker. Confucius’s ideas were collected in a book, called the Analects. The Analects emphasized the importance of relationships based on social rank, including relationships between ruler and subject. It argued that these relationships reflected the relationship between Heaven and Earth. Thus, it was important to obey and be loyal to those of higher social rank.

Christendom

Religious leaders and rulers also formed alliances in Christian Europe. This was especially true in the Byzantine Empire. Byzantine emperors and the religious leaders, or patriarchs, of the Orthodox Church worked quite closely together. Many Orthodox priests served in the government.

In Catholic Europe as well, rulers relied on priests and monks. Priests urged people to obey their kings and princes, who were believed to rule with God’s approval. The two leaderships also cooperated on religious wars, or crusades. These were directed against Muslims and other non-Christians.

However, there was also division within the Catholic world. The Catholic popes were political figures as well as religious leaders. Often, they competed with kings. Popes could charge taxes and raise armies of their own. They also had another powerful weapon. They could expel, or excommunicate, people from the Catholic Church. An excommunicated ruler faced the risk that their Catholic subjects would rebel against them. In the mid-thirteenth century, the Holy Roman Emperors were the most powerful rulers of central Europe. They fought with the Catholic pope for influence. Emperor Frederick II was excommunicated by Pope Innocent IV in 1239. In return, Frederick expelled many priests from his territory.

In general, however, church and state had a cooperative relationship. Christianity was very important to the population. Priests were very useful to rulers. Both of these things prevented a permanent break from happening.

The Bantu-speaking world

In sub-Saharan Africa, rulers were also closely tied to belief systems. This was true across the Bantu-speaking world, a vast region including central, southern, and eastern Africa. Islam did not reach this part of Africa. Here, in most cases, there were no separate religious leaders. Instead, communities shared a common set of beliefs, focused on ancestors and spirits. Many Bantu-speaking states were confederations, or unions, made up of several communities. The rulers of these confederations used shared beliefs to unify the different groups.

The Mongols

The Mongols created a huge empire through conquest. Among the conquered peoples were Buddhists, Muslims, Christians, Jews, and followers of many other faiths. The Mongols’ own ancestors were generally animists. They worshiped a number of different gods, spirits, and ancestors. But the Mongols quickly adjusted to their new surroundings. In the center and south of the Mongol Empire, many converted to Islam, although they mixed the new faith with their own practices and traditions. In China, many Mongol leaders adopted Buddhism. In the west, some Mongol leaders became Christians.

Mongol rulers generally allowed many different religious to coexist. They supported temples and churches of many different faiths. Some scholars believe this was necessary to keep the peace in a vast empire. Others see it as a form of insurance. In other words, Mongol rulers supported all faiths just in case one turned out to be the “true” religion.

1 Rulers of later states like the Ottoman Empire claimed to be Caliphs—spiritual leaders of all Muslims—right up to the twentieth century. But they didn’t really have that power or authority.