In previous the article, you read about the term “Dark Ages.” You learned that there is a debate about the term. Is it appropriate to call any historical period a “Dark Age”?

Let’s investigate this further. We should first start with a question: What was life like in Europe after the fall of the Western Roman Empire?

The fall of the Roman Empire left a power vacuum in Europe. The Roman political and military systems had provided order and security. Now, these were gone. This meant that there was no longer a large empire in power. The Germanic tribes that had helped bring about the end of the Roman Empire were still around. This led to instability in many areas. No empire immediately replaced Rome. But does this constitute a “Dark Age”?

Medieval European communities and networks 

Without strong centralized leadership, feudalism developed. Feudalism was a type of social organization. It was more decentralized. This system depended on relationships between people with differing status or power. For example, a knight might pledge to fight when needed. He would do so in exchange for land from the king. A relationship like this was typically formalized in writing. This was called a “feudal contract.” Sometimes these contracts would benefit one person more than the other.

The church took on a bigger role. It was an institution with power and resources. It could provide some of the services previously provided by Rome. The Catholic Church controlled educational institutions and cathedrals.

So the period from the fall of Rome to the Renaissance was very different from what had come before. But was it “dark”?

Culture and society in the Middle Ages

Inventions were made in agriculture. They helped improve the productivity of farming. They allowed farmers in Europe to farm previously challenging lands. These were not the only accomplishments of this era.

The first universities in Europe were created. These were established in Bologna (1088 CE), Salamanca (1134 CE), Paris (1150 CE), and Oxford (1167 CE). The Crusades opened communication between Christians and Jewish and Muslim scholars. Because of this, important ancient works were recovered. They were then translated into Latin. The printing press did not yet exist. But many Christian monks and nuns copied great works by hand.

European society during this era was hierarchical. Most people were farmers, traders, and artisans (commoners). A small group of wealthy people made up the aristocracy. The rulers were kings and queens. They held an incredible amount of power. Religious leaders were also an important social class at this time. Women often took on the traditional roles of wife and mother. However, there were some powerful queens. Most people could not read. That wasn’t the case for the aristocracy and the clergy. Many women became nuns. They lived in convents in medieval Europe. These convents provided women some education.

Medieval economic networks

Cities grew in this period. They became important centers for the production of crafts. Cities were homes to grand cathedrals. These cathedrals were built in major towns for a variety of reasons: to praise God, to be a refuge for the people in hard times, and to bring business to the town. Some towns had particularly spectacular cathedrals. Pilgrims would come to visit them. This brought money to the town.

Some cities made money through trade. The Italian city-state of Venice is one example. It became extremely wealthy. Venice was responsible for most of the shipbuilding during this time.

Was there a “Dark Ages” outside of Europe?

There is a lot of evidence against the idea that the European Middle Ages was a “Dark Age.” What about the rest of the world? Did other societies experience a “Dark Age?”

China didn’t experience the “Dark Ages.” The Han dynasty ended in 220 CE. Trade along the Silk Road suffered. There wasn’t a large empire to maintain the roads. There was no large army to protect merchants and travelers. The Tang Dynasty rose in the early 600s CE. Stability returned. The Tang Dynasty lasted almost 300 years. China expanded its territory. The population grew.

The Song dynasty (960–1279 CE) rose to power after the Tang. The Song emperors ruled over a smaller land area. But the empire still became very wealthy. During this time the Chinese population doubled. This was due to agricultural improvements. These included the creation of a new strain of rice. It was also during the reign of the Tang and Song that the Chinese went on an inventing spree. They invented gunpowder. They made advances in printing. They created the magnetic compass and paper money. International trade flourished. Internally, China had a stable government. However, the Song could not keep the Mongols out of China.

The Mongols had plagued the northern borders of China for many years. Chinggis Khan organized raids. He eventually took money from the Chinese to stop attacking them. Chinggis never fulfilled his goal of conquering China. However, in 1279 CE his grandson Kublai Khan did. Kublai Khan decided to govern from China. He established a new Mongolian-Chinese dynasty. It was called the Yuan (1271–1368 CE). During this period, a Mongol leader controlled the area from the Persian Empire to China. So, the Silk Road routes were stable and safe. Foreign trade increased. China became very wealthy. Chinese products were some of the most sought-after goods in Afro-Eurasia.

China was not the only state with flourishing culture during this time. The Abbasid Empire (750–1258 CE) was also an impressive one. Its capital was in Baghdad. Abbasid rulers were particularly interested in supporting learning. They established the House of Wisdom in Baghdad.

In Southeast Asia, the Khmer Empire (802–1431 CE) had many impressive achievements. They built the temple complex at Angkor Wat. The Khmer also maintained a complex irrigation network to control water. Ghana (700–1240 CE) flourished in West Africa. It was located on salt and gold trade routes, which helped its success and growth.

Population growth also tells us about the health and stability of Afro-Eurasia. The period from 476 to 1176 CE showed great progress. The population of this world zone increased. It grew from about 272 million in 476 CE to 407 million in 1176 CE. The growth rate slowed during certain times. This was mainly due to plague outbreaks or wars. These events occur throughout history. They aren’t unique to the Middle Ages.

So what do you think? Did any portion of Afro-Eurasia experience a truly “Dark Age”?