In previous the article, you read about the debate over the term “Dark Ages.” In particular, you learned how it has been applied to the European Middle Ages. However, is it appropriate to call any historical period a “Dark Age”? Have there ever been extended periods in human history when innovation slows dramatically or completely stops?

In order to investigate this further, we should first start with a question: What was life like in Europe after the fall of the Western Roman Empire?

With the fall of the Roman Empire, there was a power vacuum in Europe. The Roman political and military systems had provided order and security for so long. Now, these were gone. This simply meant that there was no longer a large empire in power. The Germanic tribes that had helped bring about the end of the Roman Empire were still around. This led to instability in many areas of Europe for some time. No empire immediately emerged to replace Rome. But does this constitute a “Dark Age”?

Medieval European communities and networks

Without strong centralized leadership, feudalism developed. Feudalism was a more decentralized type of political, military, and social organization. This system depended on relationships between people with differing status or power. One person pledged to support another person in a particular way. Each received something from the other in return for this support. What you could give depended on your status and wealth. For example, a knight might pledge to fight when needed in exchange for land from the king. A relationship like this was typically formalized in writing. This was called a “feudal contract.” It made clear the obligations of each individual to the other. These knights would then make similar agreements with people who were lower on the social ladder than they were. These types of arrangements, or symbiotic relationships, proved to be beneficial to all people. Though some benefitted more than others.

Another consequence of the power vacuum created by the fall of Rome was an increase in the importance of the church in day-to-day life. The church was an institution with power and resources. It was capable of providing some of the services that had previously been provided by Rome. The Catholic Church controlled educational institutions and cathedrals. It even had a powerful influence on towns and kings.

So the period from the fall of Rome to the Renaissance was very different from what had come before. But was it “dark”?

Culture and society in the Middle Ages

Many inventions were made in agriculture. They helped improve the productivity of farming. These inventions allowed farmers in Europe to farm previously challenging lands. Among these inventions were the horse collar, horseshoes, and the heavy plow. But technological innovations were not the only accomplishments of this era.

The first universities in Europe were created. These were established in Bologna (1088 CE), Salamanca (1134 CE), Paris (1150 CE), and Oxford (1167 CE). The Crusades opened communication between Christians and Jewish and Muslim scholars. Important works by writers like Aristotle and Ptolemy were recovered. They were then translated into Latin. The printing press did not yet exist. But many Christian monks and nuns copied great works of religion, literature, history, and other disciplines by hand.

European society during this era was hierarchical. Most people were farmers, traders, and artisans (commoners), while a small group of wealthy people made up the aristocracy. The rulers were kings and queens. They held an incredible amount of power. But the clergy was also an important social class at this time. Women were often relegated to traditional roles of wife and mother, although there were some powerful queens. One example is Eleanor of Aquitaine. She was the queen of both France and England in the twelfth century. Most people were illiterate during this era. But these numbers declined for members of both sexes when it came to the aristocracy and the clergy. Many women became nuns and lived in convents in medieval Europe. These convents provided women some education.

Medieval economic networks

Cities grew in this period. This is another sign of the vitality of the age. Cities became important centers for the production of crafts such as textiles, iron and metalwork, and pottery. Cities also served as homes to grand cathedrals. These cathedrals were built in major towns for a variety of reasons: to praise God, to be a refuge for the people in hard times, and to bring business to the town. Some towns had particularly spectacular cathedrals. Many had a holy relic that was known to be miraculous. This would lead hundreds of people would journey to the town on a pilgrimage. These travelers or pilgrims would bring in a great deal of money to the local shops and businesses of the town.

Some cities prospered through trade during this time. Italy, in particular the city-state of Venice, became extremely wealthy from the Crusades. Venetians were responsible for most of the shipbuilding during this era. They also established a lucrative trade agreement with the Ottomans after the wars ended.

Was there a “Dark Ages” outside of Europe?

There is a lot of evidence to refute the idea that some or all of the European Middle Ages was a “Dark Age.” What about the rest of the world? Is there evidence that other societies experienced a “Dark Age” at this time?

In China, the “Dark Ages” didn’t really exist at all. You’ll remember from the article “Between the Han and the Tang” in Era 4 that China was in a state of disarray after the end of the Han dynasty in 220 CE. Because of the fall of this dynasty, trade along the Silk Road trade networks suffered. There were no longer large empires to maintain the roads. There was no large army to help protect merchants and travelers. The Tang dynasty rose to power in the early seventh century CE. Prolonged stability returned to China and the Silk Roads. Trade along these networks also benefitted from the expansion of the Muslim empire in the Middle East. The Tang Empire lasted almost 300 years. During this time the Chinese expanded their territory. They maintained the roads and canals that were necessary for trade. The population soared.

The Song dynasty (960–1279 CE) rose to power after the demise of the Tang. While the Song emperors ruled over a smaller land area, the empire still became very wealthy. During this time the Chinese population doubled thanks to agricultural improvements. These included the cultivation of a new strain of rice. It was also during the reign of the Tang and Song that the Chinese went on an inventing spree: gunpowder, advances in printing, the magnetic compass, and paper money. International trade flourished. Internally, China had a stable government with well-trained bureaucrats. However, even with all of these accomplishments, the Song could not keep the Mongols out of China.

The Mongols had plagued the northern borders of China for many years. Chinggis Khan organized raids. He eventually took monetary payoffs from the Chinese to stop attacking them. Chinggis never fulfilled his goal of conquering China. However, in 1279 CE his grandson Kublai Khan finally achieved this goal. Once Kublai Khan conquered all of China, he decided to govern from China. He established a new Mongolian-Chinese dynasty called the Yuan (1271–1368 CE). During this period, a Mongol leader controlled the area from the Persian Empire to China. This meant that the area along the Silk Road routes was stable and safe. As a result, foreign trade increased. China became very wealthy, as Chinese products were some of the most sought-after goods in Afro-Eurasia.

China was not the only state with flourishing culture during this time. The Abbasid Empire (750–1258 CE) was also an impressive one. From its capital city of Baghdad—founded in 762 CE—leaders promoted commerce, industry, arts, and science. Abbasid rulers were particularly interested in supporting learning. They established the House of Wisdom in Baghdad. Both Muslim and non-Muslim scholars sought to translate all the world’s knowledge into Arabic.

In Southeast Asia, the Khmer Empire (802–1431 CE) had many impressive cultural achievements. Perhaps their biggest achievement was building the temple complex at Angkor Wat. This temple complex recreated Mount Meru, the home of the Hindu gods. The Khmer also maintained a complex irrigation network to control water. This would ensure it was available for rice production. Rice was the focus of their agricultural work. Ghana (700–1240 CE) flourished in West Africa. This was due in part to its strategic location on salt and gold trade routes in West Africa. Islam played an important role in the empire. Muslim scholars made valuable bookkeeping and literary contributions.

In addition, we could use population growth as an indicator of the health and stability of Afro-Eurasia. In that case, the period from 476 to 1176 CE showed great progress. The population of this world zone increased from approximately 272 million in 476 CE to 407 million in 1176 CE. The growth rate slowed in some regions during certain time periods. This was mainly due to plague outbreaks or wars. These are events that occur throughout history and aren’t just confined to the Middle Ages.

So what do you think? Given that cultural, agricultural, and economic achievement continued during this era, did any portion of Afro-Eurasia experience a truly “Dark Age”?