An Era of Revolutions

Between 1775 and 1825, revolutions broke out in Europe and the Americas. European countries wanted to get rid of kings and queens. American colonies wanted independence from European empires.

The American War of Independence was first. It was followed by the French Revolution. Next, people in Haiti rebelled against slavery and French rule in the Haitian Revolution. Finally, there were revolutions throughout Latin America.

These revolutions had many similarities. They all rejected European power. They also tried to set up new kinds of society. Revolutionaries were inspired by the Enlightenment. The Enlightenment was a philosophical movement. It placed value on freedom and equality.

The revolutions came at a time when Europe was weakened. The British and French had just fought the Seven Years’ War. After, both countries were deep in debt. So, they passed new taxes on their colonies. Thousands of miles away, the colonists had little choice. Until then, the American colonists were practically in charge of themselves. Upset with the taxes, many challenged British rule.

The American Revolution

Beginning with the Stamp Act of 1765, Great Britain issued new taxes in the American colonies. Protests and riots soon broke out in the American colonies. A tax on tea in 1773 inspired the Boston Tea Party. Protestors threw British tea into the harbor. In response, Britain passed laws to restrict the colonists’ freedom and close the Boston harbor. Protests and riots continued in the colonies. In April 1775, fighting broke out in Massachusetts.

In 1776, the Declaration of Independence was sent to the British king. A long and costly war followed. The French, Spanish, and Dutch supported the Americans. Finally, the British lost in 1783. They recognized the independence of the colonies in the Treaty of Paris. A new nation was born, but not everyone was equal. For example, the new government still allowed slavery.

The French Revolution

After the Seven Years’ War ended in 1763, the French government needed money. King Louis XVI wanted to raise taxes. To do so, he called a special meeting of the French legislators called the Estates General. It was a bit like a congress or parliament — just with less power. It hadn’t met since 1614.

At the time, the French people were divided into three “estates.” The First Estate was the Catholic church members. The Second Estate was the nobility. This was the ruling class that controlled the country’s wealth. The Third Estate was everyone else. They paid all the taxes but had no power in the government. When the king called the Estates General, the Third Estate suddenly had a voice.

In May of 1789, the opening session was held. The delegates were sharply divided, and no agreement could be reached. So, in June, the Third Estate met alone. It declared itself the National Assembly.

King Louis XVI sent an army to Paris. People in Paris responded by storming the royal prison called the Bastille. They freed prisoners, seized weapons, and killed two officials. The country was in a state of revolt.

The National Assembly ended the nobility. In 1789, it passed the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. This declared that all citizens as equal before the law. A constitution was written, and a democratic system was set up.

The French empire strikes back

As the French Revolution spread, it became more dangerous. The new government took church lands and sold them. Peasants attacked castles. They burned records of their debts. There was widespread violence. In 1793, King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antionette were killed. The first French Republic was declared.

The first French Republic completely changed society. Peasants used to work on land they could never own. Now, they could own and work on their land. Slavery was also ended with new laws.

The republic did not last for long, though. A general named Napoleon Bonaparte soon rose to power. He declared himself emperor in 1799. His armies began taking over new land across Europe.

A revolt leads to a new nation

In the Americas, France owned a colony called Saint Domingue. Today, it is known as Haiti. Saint Domingue was the richest plantation colony in the world. There were around 8,000 plantations. Almost half of the world’s sugar and coffee came from Saint Domingue. The colony made these profits through enslaved labor.

Enslaved workers made up 90 percent of the population. In 1791, enslaved people revolted. This forced the French National Assembly to abolish slavery in 1794.

The Haitian Revolution lasted many hard years. It was led by Toussaint Louverture. He was a brilliant general. He even defeated Napoleon.

The revolution was won in 1808. Haiti became the second independent republic in the Americas in 1804. It was the first independent nation-state ruled by people of African descent.

It was not just a fight for independence, though. It was about human rights and racial equality. Haitian leaders were rebelling against colonialism, racism, and slavery.

The Latin American revolutions

The Creoles led the revolutions at first. The Creoles were native-born descendants of Spanish and Portuguese settlers. In 1808, Napoleon conquered Spain and Portugal. These two powers had large colonies in Latin America. After Napoleon’s invasion, the colonies found themselves with no ruling empire.

In 1810, peasants in Mexico revolted against the Spanish. They demanded land and cheaper food. But Creole landowners stopped the rebellion. They were wealthy descendants of Spanish and Portuguese settlers. In 1821, Mexico was given independence from Spain. But the Creole landowners kept their position at the top of Mexican society.

In other parts of Latin America, more revolutionary movements were underway. In the north, general Simón Bolívar freed large amounts of land from the Spanish. In 1819, he created a new nation called “Gran Columbia.” It was made up present-day Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, and Venezuela. It was modeled after the United States. Gran Columbia only lasted until 1830.

General José de San Martín helped free Argentina, Chile, and Peru. Both Bolívar and San Martín had military success. But they did not create long-lasting democratic governments. Power eventually returned to rulers who cared more about power than democratic ideals.

An era of revolutions

Each of these revolutions was different. They were tied together, though, by three things. First, they were inspired by the ideas of the Enlightenment. Second, they rejected the power of the ruling class. Finally, they were influenced by the same political and economic network.

The era of revolutions transformed the world. Colonial powers shrank and new nations were formed. They created new kinds of governments and societies.