Introduction

Several fascist states arose in Europe between the two world wars. Hitler’s Germany is the most well-known. However, Mussolini’s Italy was the first. Benito Mussolini came to power in 1922, eleven years before Hitler did. Mussolini had founded Italy’s Fascist Party in 1919. Il Duce¹ even coined the term “totalitarian.” In this article we look at how Fascists came to power in Italy. We will also consider their efforts to create an authoritarian, totalitarian² state.

Early success in the Po Valley

Italian fascism gained power during the 1920s and 1930s. Fascists were aided by a deep economic crisis. Their rise started with violent clashes in 1920. They took place in the northern part of Italy. There, workers were unhappy about pay and work conditions. Tensions escalated. Landowning farmers were in conflict with Socialist-backed workers. The Fascists formed a street-fighting group to support the landowners. Led by Mussolini, they were called the Blackshirts. On November 21, “squads” of Blackshirts launched an attack on the Socialists in Bologna. Six people died. The Italian government chose not to get involved. The Fascists increased their attacks. After nearly two years of fighting and more than one-hundred deaths, the Fascists had defeated the Socialists. The Fascists had become a force in Italian politics.

These actions shaped the Fascist movement in the following ways:

• The Fascists came to believe fighting was the path to manhood.
• The Fascists saw that the liberal government was weak.
• The Fascists learned that violence was an effective political tool.

By 1922, Mussolini and his followers were ready to take over Italy. Fascist squads marched through the country. They fought. They beat up socialists, intimidated liberals, and removed government officials. They then staged demonstrations known as the “March on Rome.” At that point, the King of Italy named Mussolini Prime Minister. Everything seemed to be falling into place for a Fascist revolution. They would destroy their political opponents and create a totalitarian state. Or so they thought.

Fascists in power

The Fascists wanted revolution and total power. Instead they found they had to work with other political parties. Most of those parties were conservative. Mussolini also allowed many non-Fascist officials to continue working for the state. From their government posts, they could slow the Fascist agenda. One-party rule seemed beyond Mussolini’s grasp.

Beginning in 1925, Mussolini tried to expand the reach of the party. He brought more discipline to the party. He used its organization to pursue the aims of his government. Among his efforts was the creation of youth groups. They were designed to make children grow up to be good Fascists. These groups encouraged violent masculinity. They wanted girls to fill traditional female roles, like motherhood. They also promoted blind loyalty to the nation. Such movements were a common feature of fascism. The Hitler Youth in Germany, for example, had much in common with Mussolini’s youth groups. Young people supplied energy to Fascist programs.

In the 1930s, Italian Fascism was strengthened by two developments. The first were efforts to build an overseas empire. The second was the increasing likelihood of war in Europe. (World War II broke out in 1939.) The use of national power overseas was supported by many Italians. They believed it would restore the glory of ancient Rome. It would also win respect from other countries. In this way, militarism and imperialism expanded Fascism’s appeal.

In the end, the Fascists couldn’t achieve all their goals. Mussolini had been forced to make too many compromises. Conservative and liberal officials still worked for the state. They blocked the most extreme goals of Fascism. Only in its colonies were the Fascists able to practice totalitarianism.

Ethnic cleansing, race, and conquest

Antisemitism (discrimination against Jews) defined Nazism in Germany. At first, that was not exactly the case with Italian Fascism. Mussolini and the Fascists did see ethnic minorities as barriers to a purely Italian state. However, their solution was “Italianization.” The idea was that non-Italians could become Italian. To do so, they needed to adopt Italian culture. They also had pledge loyalty to the nation.³ The state was willing to use re-education programs to make this happen. For Italian Fascism, ethnicity was a matter of culture. In Nazi Germany, it was considered a matter of biology. In Fascist Italy, German-speaking peasants could become Italians. In Nazi Germany, Jews could never become Germans.

Fascism in Italy was not free of racism. Mussolini’s 1935 war against Ethiopia made that clear. The Fascists’ racist attitudes played a part in that conflict in East Africa. Advanced weapons made the fight one-sided. Italians convinced themselves their victory proved they were superior to their Ethiopian victims. The Fascists established a tight grip over the region. Italian rule there included segregation. Any kind of interracial relationship was against the law. Unlike minorities in Italy, Ethiopians were viewed as barbaric “others.” They could never become Italian.

These policies in Ethiopia had consequences back in Italy. They provided the basis for Italy’s antisemitic race laws in 1938. Italy moved closer and closer to the Nazi position. Certain groups, especially Jews, now could no longer assimilate. They were to be removed entirely. Imperialist thinking pushed Italian policies in more racist directions.

Conclusion

When they seized power, Fascists plotted a complete takeover of the Italian state. However, Mussolini was forced to compromise with other parties. The result was a state that was authoritarian. However, it never became completely totalitarian, at least within Italy itself.

1 Il Duce means “the leader.” It was Mussolini’s title as he led the Fascist movement and during his rule.

2 Authoritarian states expect people to strictly obey the government even if it means giving up personal freedom. Totalitarian rule is a more extreme version of this. In totalitarian states all citizens are essentially servants of the state.

3 When someone assimilates, they blend in with someone else’s culture. At the same time, they must often give up, or at least hide, most of their own culture.