Introduction

Several fascist states emerged in Europe between the two world wars. Hitler’s Germany was the most notorious. However, Mussolini’s Italy was the first. Mussolini had founded his Fascist Party in 1919. He came to power in 1922, eleven years before Hitler did. The term “totalitarian” is even credited to Il Duce¹ himself. In this article we look at how Fascists took over Italy. We will also consider their efforts to create an authoritarian, totalitarian² state.

Early success in the Po Valley

Italian fascism gained power during the economic crisis of the 1920s and 1930s. It started with violent clashes in the northern part of Italy beginning in 1920. There, tensions over pay and work conditions had put landowning farmers in conflict with Socialist-backed workers. The Fascists, led by Mussolini, formed a street-fighting group to support the landowners. They were called the Blackshirts. On November 21, “squads” of Blackshirts launched an attack on the Socialists in Bologna. Six people died. The Italian government chose not to get involved. The Fascists increased their attacks. After nearly two years of fighting and more than one- hundred deaths, the Fascists had defeated the Socialists. They had become what one historian called, “a de facto power in northeastern Italy with which the state had to reckon.”

These actions shaped the Fascist movement in these ways:

• The fighting fed the Fascist belief that violence was the path to manhood.
• The Fascists saw that the liberal government was weak.
• The Fascists learned that violence was an effective political tool.

By 1922, Mussolini and his followers on the verge of taking over Italy. Fascist squads marched through the provinces. They racked up violent wins. They crushed socialists, intimidated liberals, and removed government officials. They then staged demonstrations known as the “March on Rome.” At that point, the King of Italy named Mussolini Prime Minister. Everything seemed to be falling into place for a Fascist revolution. They would destroy their political opponents and create a totalitarian state. Or so they thought.

Fascists in power

The Fascists craved revolution and total power. Instead they found they had to cooperate with other political parties, most of them conservative. Mussolini also allowed many non-Fascist officials to continue working for the state. From their government posts, they could slow the Fascist agenda. One-party rule seemed beyond Mussolini’s grasp.

Beginning in 1925, Mussolini tried to strengthen the party and expand its reach. Among his achievements was the creation of youth organizations. They were designed to make children grow up to be good Fascists. These groups fostered a cult of violent masculinity. They expected girls to pursue traditional roles. They also promoted the authoritarian belief of blind loyalty to the nation. Such movements were a common feature of fascism. The Hitler Youth in Germany, for example, had much in common with Mussolini’s youth associations. Young people supplied political energy to Fascism in Italy and elsewhere.

Later in the 1930s, Fascism was strengthened by two developments. The first was Mussolini’s attempts to build an overseas empire. The second was the increasing likelihood of war in Europe. (World War II broke out in 1939.) The use of national power overseas was supported by many Italians. They believed victory on the battlefield abroad would restore the glory of ancient Rome. It would also show the world that Italy was a real player in the “game of empire.” In this way, militarism and imperialism broadened Fascism’s appeal. In addition, Mussolini brought discipline to the party. He used its organization to pursue the aims of his government.

In the end, the Fascists were unable to achieve all their goals. Mussolini had been forced to make too many compromises. Conservative and liberal elements still existed within the state. They blocked many of the most extreme goals of Fascism. Only in its colonies were the Fascists really able to experiment with totalitarianism.

Ethnic cleansing, race, and conquest

Antisemitism (discrimination against Jews) defined Nazism in Germany. That was not exactly the case with Italian Fascism, at least at first. Mussolini and the Fascists did see ethnic minorities as obstacles to creating a purely Italian state. However, their solution was “Italianization.” The idea was that non-Italians could become Italian. To do so, they needed to assimilate to Italian culture and pledge loyalty to the nation.³ The state was willing to use re-education programs to make this happen. For Italian Fascism, ethnicity was largely a matter of culture. In Nazi Germany, it was considered a matter of biology. In Fascist Italy, Slovenians and German-speaking peasants could become Italians. In Nazi Germany, Jews could never become Germans.

Still, Fascism in Italy was not without racism. Mussolini’s 1935 war against Ethiopia made that clear. Fascism’s racist attitudes were displayed during this conflict in East Africa. Advanced weapons made the fight one-sided. Italians convinced themselves that this superior firepower proved they were superior to their Ethiopian victims. After local resistance was crushed, Mussolini’s regime established a tight grip over that region. Italian rule there included segregation. Any kind of interracial relationship was prohibited. Italian Fascists ruled Ethiopians as subjects with few or no rights. Unlike minorities in Italy, Ethiopians were viewed as barbaric “others.” They could never become Italian.

Italian policies in Ethiopia had consequences back in Italy. They provided the basis for Italy’s antisemitic race laws in 1938. Italy moved closer and closer to the Nazi position. Certain groups, especially Jews, now could not assimilate. They would have to be removed entirely. In this way, imperialist thinking pushed Italian policy in more racist directions.

Conclusion

When they seized power, Fascists had planned a complete takeover of the Italian state. However, Mussolini’s was forced to compromise with conservatives and liberal elites. The result was a state that was authoritarian. However, it never really became totalitarian, at least within Italy itself.

1 Il Duce, meaning “the leader,” was Mussolini’s title as he led the Fascist movement and during his rule.

2 Authoritarian states expect people to strictly obey the government even if it means giving up personal freedom. Totalitarian rule is a more extreme version of this, where all citizens are essentially servants of the state.

3 When someone assimilates, they blend in with someone else’s culture while giving up, or at least hiding, most of their own culture.