Source Collection: Portable Belief Systems
Document 1
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Author |
Confucius (c. 551–479 BCE) |
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Date and location |
475–221 BCE, China |
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Source type |
Primary source—philosophical work |
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Description |
Below are some selections from the thoughts of Confucius. His impact was so great that 15 centuries later, his ideas often appear in memes and classroom posters. The lines in this source come mostly from conversations. They were collected by Confucius’s students and followers, some 100 years after he lived. |
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Citation |
Legge, James, ed. The Chinese Classics: Vol. 1: Confucian Analects, the Great Learning, and the Doctrine of the Mean. London: Trubner & Co., 1861. |
1:2…Yu said, “…few who, being filial and fraternal, are fond of offending their superiors…none, who, not liking to offend their superiors, have been fond of causing disorder…Filial piety and fraternal submission! —are they not the root of all humane actions?”
2:1 The Master said, “He who exercises government by means of his virtue, may be compared to the north polar star, which keeps its place, and all stars turn towards it.”
2:3 The Master said, “If the people be led by laws, and uniformity sought…[through] punishments, they will try to avoid the punishment but have no sense of shame. If they be led by virtue…they will have the sense of shame and…will become good.”
2:5 Mang E asked what filial piety was. The Master said, “…not being disobedient.”
2:19 …Gae asked, “What should be done…to secure the submission of the people?” Confucius replied, “Advance the upright and set aside the crooked…the people will submit. Advance the crooked and set aside the upright…the people will not...”
2:21 Someone said to Confucius, “Why does the Master not take part in government? The Master said, “…being filial and friendly toward [others] has its effect on government.”
12:2 Rang Yong asked about humaneness. The Master said, “When going abroad, treat everyone as if…receiving a great guest; when employing the people, do so as if assisting…a great sacrifice. What you do not want for yourself, do not do to others. There should be no resentment in the state, and no resentment in the family.”
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Glossary Filial: Relating to a son or daughter. Filial respect is the respect and duty a child owes to their parents. |
Document 2
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Author |
Ashoka (died c. 232 BCE) |
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Date and location |
268–232 BCE, India |
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Source type |
Primary source—royal decree |
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Description |
Emperor Ashoka ruled over the Mauryan Empire from 268 BCE to 232 BCE. Media as we know it did not exist yet, but that didn’t stop Ashoka from getting the word out to his people. He put up dozens of messages on large rocks, cave walls, and pillars. Ashoka talked about dhamma, an idea that is shared between Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism. Dhamma is a way of life that values selflessness, compassion, and fulfilling one’s duties to the family and community. In these messages, Ashoka referred to himself as Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi. |
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Citation |
Dhammika, Ven. S., ed. The Edicts of King Ashoka. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society, 1993. https://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/ashoka.html |
In the past…killing or harming living beings and improper behavior towards relatives, and improper behavior towards Brahmans and ascetics has increased. But now due to Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi’s Dhamma practice, the sound of the drum has been replaced by the sound of the Dhamma…
…King Piyadasi promotes restraint in the killing and harming of living beings, proper behavior towards relatives, Brahmans and ascetics, and respect for mother, father, and elders…
…King Piyadasi desires that all religions should reside everywhere, for all…desire self-control and purity of heart…Those who are content with their own religion should be told this:…King Piyadasi does not value gifts…as much as he values that there should be growth in the essentials of all religions.
…King Piyadasi conquered the Kalingas eight years after his coronation. One hundred and fifty thousand were deported, one hundred thousand were killed and many more died…After the Kalingas had been conquered, [the king] came to…love…the Dhamma and…instruction in Dhamma. Now [the king] feels deep remorse for having conquered the Kalingas.
…[the king] is…pained by the killing, dying and deportation that take place when an unconquered country is conquered. But [the king] is pained even more by this–that Brahmans, ascetics, and [households of different religions] and who are respectful to superiors, to [parents], to elders, and who behave properly and have strong loyalty towards [others]–that they are injured, killed or separated from their loved ones. Even those who are not affected suffer when they see friends, acquaintances, companions and relatives affected.
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Glossary Brahmans (Brahmins): Members of a class in Indian society who performed religious rituals and preserved sacred knowledge. |
Document 3
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Author |
Licinius (c. 260–325 CE) and Constantine (c. 280–337 CE) |
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Date and location |
313 CE, Mediolanum, Roman Empire (present-day Milan, Italy) |
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Source type |
Primary source—letters/religious decree |
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Description |
The Edict of Milan was an agreement between the Roman emperors Constantine and Licinius that outlined a change of official imperial policies toward Christians in the Roman Empire. |
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Citation |
Munro, Dana Carleton, Roland P. Falkner, Merrick Whitcomb, George L. Burr, Edward Potts Cheyney, and James Harvey Robinson, eds. Translations and Reprints from the Original Sources of European History. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1896. |
When I, Constantine Augustus, as well as I, Licinius Augustus, fortunately met near [Milan], and were considering…the public welfare and security, we thought…the reverence of the Divinity ought certainly to be made first, so that we might grant to the Christians and others full authority to observe that religion which each preferred; whence any Divinity whatsoever in the seat of the heavens may be [favorable] and kindly disposed to us and all who are placed under our rule.
And thus…no one whatsoever should be denied the opportunity to give his heart to the observance of the Christian religion, of that religion which he should think best for himself, so that the Supreme Deity, to whose worship we freely yield our hearts may show in all things His usual favor and benevolence…your Worship should know that it has pleased us to remove all conditions…concerning the Christians and…any one…who wishes to observe Christian religion may do so…without [hindrance].
We thought it fit to commend these things most fully to your care that you may know that we have given to those Christians free and unrestricted opportunity of religious worship…we have also conceded to other religions the right of open and free observance of their worship for the sake of the peace of our times, that each one may have the free opportunity to worship as he pleases…
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Glossary Reverence: Deep respect or honor for someone or something. |
Document 4
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Author |
Fa-Hien or Fa-Hsien (337–c. 422 CE) |
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Date and location |
394–414 CE, China |
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Source type |
Primary source—travel narrative |
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Description |
Fa-Hien was a Chinese Buddhist monk. He traveled from China to India in search of Buddhist teachings and books. He visited Buddhist sites in Central, South, and Southeast Asia between 399 and 412 CE. He traveled across many of the Silk Road routes and encountered many states, including the Gupta Empire. The excerpts below are from a travel book he wrote, A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms. |
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Citation |
Legge, James, ed. A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms Being an Account by the Chinese Monk Fa-Hien of His Travels in India and Ceylon (A.D. 399–414) in Search of the Buddhist Books of Discipline. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1886. |
The monks asked Fa-hien if it could be known when the Law of Buddha first went to the east. He replied, “When I asked the people of those countries…, they all said that it had been handed down by their fathers…that after the setting up of the image of Maitreya Bodhisattva there were [ascetics] of India who crossed this river, carrying with them sutras and Books of Discipline. Now the image was set up rather more than 300 years after the nirvana of Buddha, [during the] reign of [King Ping of Zhou]. According to this account, we may say that the diffusion of our great doctrines in the east began from this image…We know of a truth that the opening of the way for such a mysterious [spread] is not the work of man; and so, the dream of the emperor Ming of Han had its proper cause…
The travelers, going downwards from this towards the east, in five days came to the country of Gandhara, the place where Dharma-vivardhana, the son of Ashoka, ruled...they have also reared a large stupa, adorned with layers of gold and silver plate. The people of the country were mostly students of the Hinayana…
Going southwards from Gandhara, in four days [they] arrived at the kingdom of Purushapura [Peshawar]...Of all the stupas and temples which [they] saw in their journeyings, there was not one comparable to this in solemn beauty and majestic grandeur…
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Glossary Nirvana: In Buddhism, this is the final state of existence, in which one is free from the suffering and pain of life; only achieved by living according to Buddhist principles. |
Document 5
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Author |
Gregory of Tours (538–594 CE) |
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Date and location |
c. 575 CE, Tours (present-day France) |
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Source type |
Primary source—historical work |
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Description |
Clovis (c. 466–511 CE) was king of the Franks and ruled Gaul (in western Europe) before uniting the Frankish tribes under his rule during the Merovingian Dynasty. His conversion to Christianity in 496 CE was a pivotal moment in the acceptance of Christianity in Europe. |
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Citation |
Gregory of Tours. History of the Franks. Translated by Ernest Brehaut. New York: Columbia University Press, 1916. This text is part of the Internet Medieval Source Book, by Paul Halsall, Fordham University. https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/gregory-clovisconv.asp |
When St. Remi had preached to the King the Christian faith and taught him the way of the Cross…[Clovis] promised fervently that he would…serve…the all-powerful God. After that, he said he would put to the test…his chieftains and lesser people: for he would convert them more easily if they were converted by pleasant means…than if they were…force[d]…The folk and the chieftains were assembled by the command of the King. He arose…and spoke to this effect: “Lords of the Franks, it seems to me highly profitable that you should know…what are those gods which you worship. For we are certain of their falsity: and we come right freely into the knowledge of Him who is the true God. Know of a surety that this same God which I preach to you has given victory over your enemies in the recent battle against the Alemanni. Lift…your hearts in just hope and ask…that He give to you all that which you desire—that He save our souls and give us victory over our enemies.” When the King full of faith had thus preached to and admonished his people, one and all banished from their hearts all unbelief, and recognized their Creator.
…Then in the name of the holy and indivisible Trinity—Father, Son, and Holy Ghost—the prelate consecrated [Clovis] with the divine unction. Two sisters of the king and 3,000 fighting men of the Franks and a great number of women and children were…baptized.
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Glossary Fervently: With intense feeling and passion. |
Image of a Buddha head in Afghanistan, fifth to sixth century CE.
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Glossary Corridor: A passageway between two areas, such as a mountain pass. |
Document 7
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Author |
Tāriq ibn Ziyād (c. 670–720 CE) as written by historian Ahmed Mohammed al-Maqqari (1577–1632) |
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Date and location |
711 CE, Gibraltar |
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Source type |
Primary source—speech |
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Description |
Tāriq ibn Ziyād was a Berber commander who initiated the Muslim imperial conquest of Visigoth Hispania on behalf of the Umayyad Caliphate from 711 to 718 CE. He led an army across the Strait of Gibraltar from the north African coast. Indeed, the name Gibraltar is the Spanish version of the Arabic phrase Jabal Tāriq, which means “mountain of Tāriq.” |
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Citation |
Horne, Charles F., ed. The Sacred Books and Early Literature of the East. New York: Parke, Austin, & Lipscomb, 1917. This text is part of the Internet Medieval Source Book, by Paul Halsall, Fordham University, and has been updated by Jerome S. Arkenberg. https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/711Tarik1.asp |
Oh, my warriors…Your enemy is before you…he has men in abundance, but you, as your only aid, have your own swords, and, as your only chance for life, such a chance as you can snatch from…your enemy…
Remember that if you suffer a few moments in patience, you will afterward enjoy supreme delight. Do not imagine that your fate can be separated from mine, and rest assured that if you fall, I shall perish with you, or avenge you…The Commander of True Believers…has chosen you for this attack from among all his Arab warriors; and he promises that you shall become his comrades and shall hold the rank of kings in this country. Such is his confidence in your [bravery]. The one fruit which he desires to obtain from your bravery is that the word of God shall be exalted in this country, and that the true religion shall be established…The spoils will belong to yourselves.
…I place myself in the front of this glorious charge which I exhort you to make…when the two armies meet…you will see me…seeking out this Roderic, tyrant of his people, challenging him to combat, if God is willing. If I perish…I will have…the satisfaction of delivering you, and you will easily find among you an experienced hero, to whom you can confidently give the task of directing you…[if] I fall before I reach Roderic, redouble your ardor, force yourselves to the attack and achieve the conquest of this country, depriving him of life. With him dead, his soldiers will no longer defy you.
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Glossary Abundance: A large amount. |