Era 3 Text Reader
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader1ERA 3—CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESThis Word document contains ALL of the readings from the era. All readings include multiple copies at different Lexile levels. You are free to repurpose these materials as needed for your classroom. Please do remember to properly cite World History Project as the source. If you modify the text, it will change the lexile level. As always, only print what you need. We have included a short description, author bio, and source list with the highest lexile version only.ERA 3 OVERVIEW: CITIES, STATES AND EMPIRES........................................................3VILLAGE NETWORKS.......................................................................................................13PASTORALISTS, NOMADS, AND FORAGERS................................................................23REGIONAL TRADE NETWORKS......................................................................................33PHOENICIANS: MASTERS OF THE SEA.........................................................................43THE IRON AGE..................................................................................................................53THE HITTITES AND ANCIENT ANATOLIA.......................................................................65INTRODUCTION TO AGRARIAN SOCIETIES...................................................................75GROWTH OF CITIES.........................................................................................................91ANCIENT AGRARIAN SOCIETIES..................................................................................102SHANG DYNASTY CHINA............................................................................................102NUBIA AND ANCIENT EGYPT.....................................................................................112THE OLMEC AND CHAVÍN...........................................................................................123AKSUM.........................................................................................................................133NOK SOCIETY..............................................................................................................144INDUS RIVER VALLEY.................................................................................................151TEOTIHUACAN AND CLASSIC MESOAMERICA...........................................................163PRE-CONTACT AMERICAS............................................................................................175FIRST STATES................................................................................................................182OVERVIEW OF BELIEF SYSTEMS.................................................................................194CONFUCIANISM...........................................................................................................207DAOISM........................................................................................................................215BUDDHISM...................................................................................................................223LEGALISM....................................................................................................................234JUDAISM.......................................................................................................................244CHRISTIANITY.............................................................................................................256
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader2HINDUISM.....................................................................................................................267ISLAM...........................................................................................................................276SYNCRETISM..................................................................................................................287WHAT IS AN EMPIRE?....................................................................................................297AUTHORITY AND CONTROL IN ANCIENT EMPIRES....................................................307RISE OF EMPIRES: AKKADIANS AND ASSYRIANS.....................................................319THE PERSIAN EMPIRE................................................................................................331THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE........................................................................................344THE PTOLEMAIC DYNASTY........................................................................................353THE MAURYAN AND GUPTA EMPIRES......................................................................365THE ZHOU AND QIN DYNASTIES: CHINA..................................................................378THE ROMAN EMPIRE......................................................................................................388HAN DYNASTY CHINA....................................................................................................397WOMEN AND FAMILIES IN CLASSICAL SOCIETY.......................................................411When viewing this document in Microsoft Word format, you can Ctrl+Clickon the name of each article to go directly to the corresponding page in the reader.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader3Era 3 Overview: Cities, States and EmpiresBetween about 6000 BCE and 600 CE, societies grew bigger and more complex. Families joined with each other to make villages, and villages grew into cities. As foragers became pastoralists and farmers, they also became village dwellers and city-builders. People living in these societies, either by choice or by force, then constructed government and systems of religion to help manage the problems, and the opportunities, of bigger populations and more complex life-styles.Era 3 Overview: Cities, States and Empires (1110L)Trevor Getz and Bridgette Byrd O’ConnorWhen the last era ended, the world was a patchwork of human societies. Our ancestors had spread from Africa to most of the world's continents and large islands. Some of them were farming and herding animals, while others still largely foraged for wild plants and animals. Many people did both. We ended the era by comparing and contrasting Neolithic farming and pastoral communities in different parts of the world. These societies had made enormous innovations over thousands of years and each of these communities had created unique new cultures.But change in human history isn't only driven by innovation withina society. In fact that's not even the principal driver of change. We also learn from each other's societies. New techniques, strategies, ideas, and tools are invented in one place, and then they're shared with other regions.People in nearby societies see what their neighbors are doing, and either adopt their ideas (essentially copying them) or adapt them (changing them to serve their own needs). Some of the most important inventions in human history—like iron and ramen—were only invented once or twice independently, and then people around the world learned to use and love them!Growing communitiesIn this era, we ask how new complex political and economic systems developed, and how their emergence affected their communities and their relationships with other communities. And there were a lot more, and bigger, communities in this era! Between about 6000 BCE and 600 CE, societies, significant population growth, and increasing population density happened in many parts of the world. Families joined with each other to make villages, and villages grew into cities. This was especially true in the Neolithic communities discussed in the last era. You may have noticed that this unit overlaps with the last one by several thousand years. That's because the two key transformations of Era 2 and Era 3 overlapped. As foragers became pastoralists and farmers, they also became village dwellers and city-builders.In many places, cities and villages also came together under one government as states. Sometimes these states were centered on a single city, with many villages connected to them. This was an early pattern in Mesopotamia, for example. Sometimes there were several cities and lots of villages linked together. This happened quite early in Egypt. Over time, some states grew very large, and became empires—several groups of different communities ruled by one government, often with some inequality between the communities.In fact, inequality was something of a feature of these new cities and states. While we often talk of these developments as evidence of positive changes, they also brought new problems. For a poor person in a city,
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader4or a conquered person in a large state, life was often brutal, dirty, and filled with hard work. But for others, thecity and the state brought excitement and opportunity.Village, metropolitan, and long-distance networksWhether good or bad, humans living in these societies had many new experiences. This was due largely to the growth of communities and expansion of networks. There were also many new humans to have these experiences.Populations grew dramatically in Era 3. The rate of growth sped up over time. It took 1600 years—between 2600 and 1000 BCE—for the world's population to double. It grew from about 60,000,000to about 120,000,000 people. But it took only 1,000 years—between 1000 BCE and 1 CE—for the population to double again, to 250,000,000 people. So populations, like the size of communities and the extent of networks, grew in this period.The most importantnetworks for everyday life remained quite localized. Villages connected to each other and to local, nomadic people through village networks. As cities emerged, a new type of network developed known as a metropolitan network. This network connected cities with the villages and rural areas around them, which they could to some degree control.But during Era 3, long-distance networks also gradually developed. In Eurasia, the domestication of horses allowed for much speedier communication and allowed rulers toextend their influence and control over people hundreds of miles away from the capitals of their empires. Similarly, the domestication of the camel in western Asia and Africa meant that people and goods could now move across deserts at an accelerated rate. At sea, new and improving ship-building and navigation technologies helped states and empires spread across larger areas. In many regions, infrastructure projects such as the building of roads connected empires in a more efficient way.As a result, more people travelled—although the number of people traveling compared to the overall population was still quite low. But for those that did travel, they learned each other's languages and read each other's ideas. Interlocking networks of roads, trails, and sealanes connected almost all parts of Afro-Eurasia. Such networks also existed in the Americas, across extensive areas of Mesoamerica and the Andean mountain spine of South America.Increased trade, new experiencesOf course, each of these innovations also helped to stimulate production and distribution. Networks that allowed for the sharing of ideas and growth of communities across oceans and along land routes also stimulated trade. The most extensive trade route of this era was the Silk Road, which connected the imperial centers of Rome and Han Dynasty China during the second and first centuries BCE.Long-distance trade played a role in concentrating immense amounts of wealth in the hands of a minority of people. Hunter-gatherers had lived in relative equality. But life in agrarian cities and states generally was different. These societies tended to have more sharply defined social classes. The elite controlled much of the wealth and had many other privileges. However, some cities and societies seem to have relatively little hierarchy, while others had a great deal.Rulers and wealthy merchants also drove the development of writing, probably the most important development during this era. The ability to read and write was rare and generally something only the
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader5wealthy had. Therefore, writing deepened the distance between the elite and commoners. The first written texts were generally not love poems or novels. Writing started as a way to record the trading of goods and surpluses of food. Writing let merchants record that they had traded three goats for five bushels of wheat. It let rulers write down instructions to the commanders and governors overseeing the furthest edges of their state.Writing also helped to solidify and spread an important element of increasingly complex cultures of cities, states, and empires. These were large-scale belief systems of people from different cultures and with different languages. Most people of this era believed in more local religions with their own set of rituals and practices. These systems of belief were particular to their community. Their sacred places were within their local environment and they worshipped their own gods and goddesses.Beginning in Era 3, however, religions emerged that were portable—they were not tied toone place—and congregational—meaning they brought groups of people together. Many of the world's major portable, congregational religions appeared during this time. Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Hinduism, Daoism, Buddhism, and Christianity all appeared, as networks of commerce and cultural exchange in Afro-Eurasia were appearing for the first time. With these new connections across local communities and different languages, humans began adopting shared belief systems. From that perspective, the growth of world religions seemed inevitable due to growing connectedness. These particular systems of belief were by no means the same—and by no means inevitable. The leaders of these world religions struggled with persistent questions about suffering and meaning. They looked at these issues through different lenses and came to different conclusions. But they formed both networks and communities of great significance in this era. They helped to shape and connect human experiences over vast regions and over thousands of years.ConclusionDespite the growth of portable religions, empires, and long-distance networks, most people in Era 3 still lived lives that were very local. They barely moved a few miles from where they were born, and their deepest connections were with people in their own local communities or their language networks. Similarly, not everybody lived in big states or cities. In fact, foragers still populated large regions of the world. Within cities, states, and empires, life experiences were also very diverse. The wealthy and powerful might profit greatly from the growth of agriculture and trade to enjoy very high standards of living. But one of the enduring truths about the human transition to cities is that life did not universally improve. In fact, for many people, living in early settlements meant shorter and less healthy lives than hunting and gathering. So rather than thinking of Era 3 as one step in a chain of progress, you might use the evidence in this unit to think about how new political and economic systems developed in this era, how it changed the way people lived, and what might be the lessons we can take away from these answers that might be meaningful today.Author BiosTrevor Getz is a professor of African and world history at San Francisco State University. He has been the author or editor of 11 books, including the award-winning graphic history Abina and the Important Men, and has coproduced several prize-winning documentaries. Trevor is also the author of A Primer for Teaching African History, which explores questions about how we should teach the history of Africa in high school and university classes.Bridgette Byrd O’Connor holds a DPhil in history from the University of Oxford and has taught Big History, world history, and AP US government and politics for the past 10 years at the high school level. In addition,
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader6Bridgette has been a freelance writer and editor for the Big History Project and the Crash Course world history and US history curricula.Era 3 Overview: Cities, States and Empires (1040L)Trevor Getz and Bridgette Byrd O’ConnorWhen Era 2 concluded, the world was a patchwork of different human societies. Our ancestors had spread from Africa to most continents and large islands. Some people farmed and herded animals, others foraged for food, and many people did both. We ended the era by comparing and contrasting Neolithic farming and farming communities in different parts of the world. These societies had madeenormous innovations over thousands of years and communities had created unique cultures.Yet innovation withina single society isn't the principal driver of change. We learn from othersocieties. Once a new technique, idea, or tool is invented in one place, it is shared with nearby societies. People see what their neighbors are doing, and either adopt their ideas completely or selectively. Some of the most important inventions in human history—like iron and ramen—were invented once or twice independently, and then people around the world adopted them.Growing communitiesIn this era, we ask how new, complex political and economic systems developed, and how their emergence affected communities. Between about 6000 BCE and 600 CE, societies, many parts of the world saw significant population growth. Families joined with each other to make villages, and villages grew into cities. This was especially true in the Neolithic communities discussed in the last era. You may have noticed that this unit overlaps with the last one by several thousand years. That's because the two key transformations of Era 2 and Era 3 overlapped. As foragers became farmers, they also became village dwellers and city-builders.In many places, cities and villages came together under one government. Sometimes, as in Mesopotamia, these states were centered on a single city, with many villages connected to them. Sometimes there were several cities and many villages linked together, as in Egypt. Over time, some states grew very large, and became empires—groups of different communities ruled by one government, often with inequality between communities.In fact, inequality was a significant (and new) feature of the emerging cities and states. For a poor person in a city, or a conquered person in a large state, life was often brutal and filled with hard work. Yet for others, the city and state brought opportunity.Village, metropolitan, and long-distance networksAs communities and networks grew, humans living in these societies had many new experiences.Populations and the rate of growth grew dramatically in Era 3. In Era 2 it took 1600 years for the world's population to double from about 60,000,000 to about 120,000,000 people. Starting in 1000 BCE, it took only 1,000 years or the population to double once again.The most important networks for everyday life remained quite localized. Village networks connected villages to each other and to nomadic people. As cities emerged, a new type of network developed--a metropolitan network. This network connected cities with the villages and rural areas around them, which cities controlled to some degree.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader7Long-distance networks also gradually developed. In Eurasia, the domestication of horses facilitated faster communication and allowed rulers to extend their areas of influence and control. Similarly, the domestication of the camel in western Asia and Africa allowed people and goods to move across deserts more quickly. At sea, new ship-building and navigation technologies helped states and empires spread. In many regions, projects such as building roads connected empires more efficiently.As a result, more people traveled—although the number of travelers was low compared to the overall population. Travelers learned each other's languages and read about their ideas. Networks of roads, trails, and sea lanes connected almost all parts of Afro-Eurasia. Such networks also existed in much of Mesoamerica and the Andean mountains in South America.Increased trade, new experiencesOf course, these innovations and networksalso helped to increase production and trade. The most extensive trade route of this era was the Silk Road, connecting the imperial centers of Rome and China.Long-distance trade played a role in concentrating immense amounts of wealth in the hands of a small minority. Hunter-gatherers had lived in relative equality, but life in the new cities and states was different. Elites controlled much of the wealth and enjoyed many other privileges. However, the extent to which social hierarchies formed varied between societies.Rulers and wealthy merchants also drove the development of writing, probably the most important development of this era. The ability to read and write was rare and generally possessed only by the wealthy. Therefore, writing deepened the distance between the elite and commoners. The first written texts were not love poems or novels. Writing started as a way to record information about trade and food supplies. Writing let merchants record that they had traded three goats for five bushels of wheat. Writing also enabled rulers to send instructions to the commanders and governors overseeing the furthest edges of their state.Writing helped to solidify and spread large-scale belief systems--an important element of cities, states, and empires. Oftentimes, different languages were spoken within an empire. Most people believed in local religions with rituals and practices particular to their own communities. Their sacred places were within their local environment and they worshiped their own gods and goddesses.Beginning in Era 3, new religions emerged. They were portable rather than tied to one place. They were also congregational, meaning they brought different groups of people together. Many portable and congregational major religions appeared during this time, including Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Hinduism, Daoism, Buddhism, and Christianity. They were enabled by networks of commerce and cultural exchange in Afro-Eurasia. However, these particular systems of belief were by no means the same and leaders ofworld religions often reached different conclusions on key issues. Yet these religious networks and communities helped to shape and connect humans over vast regions and throughout thousands of years.ConclusionDespite the growth of portable religions, empires, and long-distance networks, most people in Era 3 still lived very local lives. They barely moved a few miles from where they were born, and their deepest connections were with people in their own local communities or language networks. Not everybodylived in big states or cities. In fact, foragers still populated large regions of the world. Within cities, states, and empires, life experiences were also very diverse. The wealthy and powerful profited greatly from the growth of agriculture and trade toenjoy very high standards of living. However, life did not universally improve
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader8upon the transition to cities. For many people, living in early settlements meant shorter and less healthy lives. Rather than thinking of Era 3 as one step in a chain of progress, you might use this unit to think about how new political and economic systems developed in this era. How did this era change people's lives? What lessons of Era 3 are still relevant today?Era 3 Overview: Cities, States and Empires (950L)Trevor Getz and Bridgette Byrd O’ConnorThe world was a patchwork of different human societies at the end of Era 2. Our ancestors had spread from Africa to most continents and large islands. Some people were farmers and herders while others foraged--and many did both. Human societies had made major innovations over thousands of years, creating unique cultures. People learn from other societies, and this exchange drives innovation. We see what our neighbors are doing and adopt their ideas in whole or in part. This can be seen in many of the key inventions in human history, from iron to ramen noodles.Growing communitiesIn Era 3, we consider the impact and development of new political and economic systems. Between about 6000 BCE and 600 CE, many parts of the world saw significant population growth. Families joined with each other to make villages, and villages grew into cities. The transformations of Era 2 and Era 3 overlapped. As foragers became farmers, they also became village dwellers and city-builders.In many places, cities and villages came together under one government. In places like Mesopotamia, states were centered on a single city with many connected villages. In Egypt and other places, there were several cities and many villages linked together. Over time, some states grew very large, and became empires. We define empires as several groups of different communities ruled by one government, often with inequality between communities.Inequality was a significant feature of the emerging cities and states. For a poor person in a city, or a conquered person in a large state, life was often brutal and filled with hard work. Yet for others, the city and state brought opportunity.Village, metropolitan, and long-distance networksCommunities and networks grew, creating new experiences for the people who lived in them.The size of populations and rate of population growth grew dramatically in Era 3. In Era 2 it took 1600 years for the world's population to double. Starting in 1000 BCE, it took only 1,000 years for thepopulation to double once again.The most important networks for everyday life remained local. Village networks connected villages to each other and to people who lived outside of villages. As cities emerged, a new type of network developed--a metropolitan network. Now cities were connected to villages and surrounding rural areas, which they controlled to some degree.Long-distance networks also developed. In Eurasia, the domestication of horses enabled faster communication and allowed rulers to extend their areas of control. Similarly, domesticating the camel in western Asia and Africa allowed people and goods to move across deserts more quickly. New ship-building
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader9and navigation technologies helped states and empires spread. In many regions, newly built roads better connected empires.As a result, more people traveled—although the number of travelers was still low compared to the overall population. Travelers learned each other's languages and read new ideas. Networks of roads, trails, and sea lanes connected almost all parts of Afro-Eurasia. Such networks also existed in much of Mesoamerica and in South America.Increased trade, new experiencesOf course, networks also helped to increase production and trade. The most extensive trade route of this era was the Silk Road, connecting Rome and China.Long-distance trade played a role in concentrating immense amounts of wealth in the hands of a small minority. Hunter-gatherers had lived in relative equality, but life in the new cities and states was different. Elites controlled much of the wealth and had more privileges. However, the extent to which social hierarchies formed differed between societies.Rulers and wealthy merchants led to the development of writing, probably the most important development of the era. Only a few people could read and write, most of whom were wealthy. Writing deepened the distance between elites and commoners. Writing started as a way to record information about trade and food supply. Writing also enabled rulers to send instructions to the commanders and governors overseeing the furthest edges of their state.Writing helped to spread belief systems--an important element of states and empires. Most people believed in local religions with practices particular to their communities.Beginning in Era 3, new religions emerged. They were portable rather than tied to one place and brought different groups of people together. Many major religions appeared during this time: Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Hinduism, Daoism, Buddhism, and Christianity. They were enabled by networks of commerce and cultural exchange in Afro-Eurasia. However, these systems of belief could have significant differences even within the same religion. Yet these religious networks and communities helped to shape and connect humans over vast regions and throughout thousands of years.ConclusionDespite the growth of religions, empires, and long-distance networks, most people in Era 3 lived local lives. They barely moved a few miles from where they were born. Their deepest connections were with people in their own local communities or their language networks. Not everybody lived in big states or cities. In fact, foragers still populated large regions of the world. Within cities, states, and empires, life experiences were quite different. The wealthy and powerful profited from agriculture and trade to enjoy very high standards of living. However, life did not universally improve. For many people, living in early settlements meant shorter and less healthy lives. Rather than thinking of Era 3 as one step in a chain of progress, you might think about how new political and economic systems developed in this era. How did this era change people's lives? What lessons of Era 3 are still relevant today?
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader10Era 3 Overview: Cities, States and Empires(840L)Trevor Getz and Bridgette Byrd O’ConnorThe world had many different human societies at the end of Era 2. Our ancestors had spread from Africa to most continents and large islands. Some people were farmers and herders, others foraged, and many did both. Human societies had made major innovations and created cultures. Exchange between societies drives innovation. We see what our neighbors are doing and adopt their ideas in whole or in part. This can be seen in many inventions in human history, from iron to ramen noodles.Growing communitiesIn Era 3, we consider new political and economic systems. Between 6000 BCE and 600 CE, the population grew in many parts of the world. Families joined with each other to make villages, and villages grew into cities. The transformations of Era 2 and Era 3 overlapped. As foragers became farmers, they also became village dwellers and city-builders.Cities and villages came together under one government in many places. In places like Mesopotamia, states were centered on a single city with many connected villages. In Egypt and elsewhere, there were several cities and linked villages. Over time, some states grew very large, and became empires. Empires are several groups of different communities ruled by one government. There was often inequality between communities.For a poor person in a city, or a conquered person in a large state, life could be brutal. Many people had to work hard, yet others found new opportunities.Village, metropolitan, and long-distance networksCommunities and networks grew significantly, creating new ways of life. The size of populations and rate of population growth increased in Era 3. Starting in 1000 BCE, it took only 1,000 years for the population to double.The most important networks for everyday life remained local. Village networks connected villages to each other. As cities emerged, a new type of network developed--a metropolitan network. Now cities were connected to villages and surrounding rural areas. Cities often had some control over nearby lands and villages.Long-distance networks developed in Era 3. In Eurasia, the domestication of horses enabled faster communication. Rulers could extend their areas of control. Domesticating the camel in western Asia and Africa had similareffects. New ship-building and navigation technologies also helped states and empires spread. In many regions, newly built roads better connected empires.As a result, more people traveled—although most people did not travel far outside of their communities. Travelers learned new languages and read new ideas. Networks of roads, trails, and sea connected almost all parts of Afro-Eurasia. Such networks also existed in much of Mesoamerica and in South America.Increased trade, new experiencesNetworks also helped to increase production and trade. The largest trade route of this era was the Silk Road, connecting Rome and China.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader11Long-distance trade played a role in concentrating immense amounts of wealth in the hands of a few. Hunter-gatherers had lived in relative equality, but life in the new cities and states was different. Elites controlled much of the wealth and had more privileges. However, some societies were more unequal than others.Rulers and merchants led to the most important development of the era: writing. Only a few people could read and write and most of them were wealthy. Writing started as a way to record information about trade and food supply. Writing also enabled rulers to send instructions to faraway commanders and governors. It hence enabledempires to rule larger areas.Writing also helped to spread belief systems. Previously, most people believed in local religions with practices particular to their communities.New religions emerged in Era 3. They brought different groups of people together. Many major religions appeared during this time: Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Hinduism, Daoism, Buddhism, and Christianity. They were enabled by trade networks in Afro-Eurasia. However, there could be significant differences even within the same religion. Yet these religious networks and communities helped to connect diverse people over vast regions and through thousands of years.ConclusionDespite the growth of religions, empires, and networks, most people in Era 3 lived local lives. They barely moved a fewmiles from where they were born. Their deepest connections were with people in their own communities. Not everybody lived in big states or cities. In fact, the world still had many foragers. Within cities, states, and empires, life experiences were quite different. The wealthy and powerful profited from agriculture and trade to enjoy very high standards of living. However, many people had shorter and less healthy lives. Rather than thinking of Era 3 as one step in a chain of progress, you might think abouthow new political and economic systems developed in this era. How did this era change people's lives? What lessons of Era 3 are still relevant today?Era 3 Overview: Cities, States and Empires (600L)Trevor Getz and Bridgette Byrd O’ConnorThere were manydifferent societies at the end of Era 2. Our ancestors spread from Africa to most of the rest of the world. Some people were farmers and herders, while others foraged for food. Many did both. Societies had created new innovations and cultures. Exchange between societies drive new developments. We see what our neighbors are doing and adopt their ideas. Many human inventions followed this path. Iron and ramen noodles are two examples.Growing communitiesWe will look at new political and economic systems. The population grew in many parts of the world between 6000 and 600 CE. Families joined with each other to make villages. Then villages grew into cities.Cities and villages came together under one government. In places like Mesopotamia, states were centeredon a single city. Many villages were connected to the city. In Egypt and elsewhere, there were several cities connected to villages. Over time, some states became empires. Empires are groups of different communities ruled by one government. There was often inequality within an empire.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader12Life in an empire could be brutal. Many people had to work hard, yet others found new opportunities. Village, metropolitan, and long-distance networksCommunities and networks grew. New ways of life were created. The size ofpopulations and rate of growth increased in Era 3.Local networks remained important. Village networks connected villages to each other. As cities emerged, a new type of network developed. Now cities were connected to villages and surrounding areas. Cities often had some control over these lands.Long-distance networks also developed. In Eurasia, horses enabled faster communication. Rulers could control a larger area. The camel had similar effects in western Asia and Africa. Better ship-building also helped networks spread. Newly built roads connected empires.More people traveled. Still, most people did not travel far outside of their communities. Travelers learned new languages and read new ideas. Networks connected almost all of Afro-Eurasia. Networks also existed in much of Mesoamerica and in South America.Increased trade, new experiencesTrade increased. The Silk Road was the largest trade route, connecting Rome and China.Long-distance trade helped a few people gain significant wealth. Hunter-gatherers had lived in relative equality. Life in the new cities and states was different. Elites controlled much of the wealth and had more privileges. Yet some societies were more unequal than others.Writing was probably the most important development of Era 3. Only a few people could read and write. Most of them were wealthy. Writing started as a way to record information about trade and food supply. Rulers could send instructions to faraway commanders and governors. Writing also helped to spread belief systems. Previously, most people believed in local religions. Communities had their own religious practices.New religions emerged. They brought different groups of people together. Many major religions first appeared in this time. Trade networks enabled religions to spread. There were differences even within the same religion. Yet religious networks and communities helped to connect many people.ConclusionDespite these changes, most people in Era 3 lived local lives. They lived and died in the same place. Their most important connections were local. Not everybody lived in big states or cities. There were still foragers. Within empires, life experiences differed. The wealthy enjoyed high standards of living. At the same time, others had shorter andless healthy lives. It is not helpful to think of Era 3 as one step in a chain of progress. Instead, think about how new political and economic systems developed. How did this era change people's lives? What lessons of Era 3 are still with us today?
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader13Village NetworksFor much of human history, we lived in small villages and towns, not in the large cities and societies we’re used to today. What was life like in these villages?Village Networks (1240L)Eman M. ElshaikhIntroductionOne of the most significantmoments in human history was the advent of farming. It didn't all happen at the same time or to the same extent across societies, but the switch from looking for food to growing it changed everything. Farming allowed humans to actually store extra food, leaving more time for activities that weren't always about eating, like the establishment of complex societies.As with most big changes, it didn't happen overnight. Cities, states, and societies evolved over a long period of human history. Most communitiesfrom this period lived in villages and small towns. Even the Roman Empire was mostly people living in small, agricultural settlements.These early villages grew in different ways. Some were proto-cities that eventually developed into large urban population centers and parts of states. Others remained self-sufficient villages, exchanging with other villages in networks.We don't have written records from most villages, but archeological excavations have literally unearthed a lot of information about villagelife. Things like clothing and mud homes don't usually survive after thousands of years. But pottery, artifacts made from shells, and homes made of sturdy materials last longer. Looking at the surviving objects of infrastructure, archeologists and historians have been able to reconstruct a story about early village life.Social life before the citySo what was life like before farming gave us all this free time? Many scholars consider earlier foraging societies to be largely egalitarian, meaning that therewas comparatively less social inequality. It seems like this continued to be the case in early farming villages, where people had relatively equal social status. Most people living in villages spent the majority of their time producing food. Hunting, foraging, caring for animals, and growing food was still everyone's primary job. Although some people began to work on storing and preserving food, labor was mostly divided by gender, with women spending more time taking care of small children but also participating in food production. However, these gender divisions did not necessarily mean gender inequalities.How do historians know this? Archeological evidence shows that people in villages probably shared tools and work spaces. Excavations of the Tripolye culture (c. 5200-3500 BCE) in modern-day Ukraine and of the town of Çatalhüyük (c. 7500-5700 BCE) in modern-day Turkey show that homes were mostly about the same size, and the objects in homes and graves were of relatively equal value. Analysis of human bones also tells us that people living in villages had similar diets.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader14People living in farming communities had pretty different lives from their hunter-gatherer ancestors. They lived in closer quarters, allowing disease to spread much faster, and some research suggests that people had more anxieties about disease. Also, as their food supply became increasingly dependent on favorable environmental conditions, they worried more about the weather. The weather was so important that it influenced many spiritual beliefs and practices, and honoring the source of life and the Earth were often at the center of early religious beliefs. Some artifacts found in early villages suggest that women were regarded as the source of life because they symbolized fertility. For example, goddess figures found in Çatalhüyük depict feminine deities.However, that celebration of the feminine did not exactly put farming communities at the forefront of gender equality. As these villages introduced things like permanent dwellings, the concept of ownership, and a more specific definition of family, gender hierarchies tended to intensify. Kinship systems in general became more complicated and rigid. Hunter-gatherer societies had needed full-time effort from all men and women to stay fed, but the new farming communities could build up surpluses of food, allowing women to have more children. Over time, most women's lives became less about the work of food production and more about children and maintaining small family homes.Before long-distance tradeUsually when we talk about trade and its tremendous impact on human history, we think of ships crossing oceans. But long before any of that happened, villages began trading with each other in local networks, and that development was also pretty major.When farming villages started trading with nomadic foraging communities and other farming communities, they could get their hands on things like obsidian. This specialty of the people from Çatalhüyük was a hard volcanic glass that villagers used to create many tools. This old-school hardware wasn't just in Turkey —archeologists have also traced obsidian trade among village networks in the many islands of Oceania. The Lapita culture, which existed from about 1600-500 BCE, left behind plenty of obsidian artifacts, as well as ceramics, marine shells, and plants. The excavation sites on these islands suggest that inter-island trade occurred way before long-distance trade routes emerged. In the Americas during the last millennium BCE, coastal villages in the Norte Chico society (Peru today) traded fish, mollusks, and shells with inland villages, which cultivated corn, textiles, potatoes, quinoa, and cattle, specifically llamas.Well, once you start trading potatoes and llamas, it isn't long before you're building roads, bridges, and irrigation and drainage systems. This kind of trade also contributed to food surpluses and specialization as villages grew more productive. In studying the lives of people living in village communities and the networks between them, historians can see the emergence of new social functions. More people made pottery, wove baskets and cloth, and worked with leather and wood. Labor became increasingly divided, and larger projects needed to be coordinated by administrators and leaders. This resulted in greater social hierarchies, with more defined notions of property, class, and caste.Sure enough, the archeological record bears this out. Burial sites start to look very different from one another, with some graves—including those of children—containing gold artifacts and jewelry, while others did not. The fact that even children had such valuable items in their graves suggests that people in villages and towns began to accumulate private wealth and transfer it across generations, providing evidence of the beginning of social classes.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader15Similarly, gender roles generally changed. Male heads of family tended to gain control over wealth, and political considerations required more defined families and strategic marriage alliances. However, this didn't happen everywhere in quite the same way, and there was still plenty of variety in the way people understood gender and family in different regions of the world.Trade helped villages grow, but village networks also boosted trade in a big way. As trade routes grew, villages located near trade hubs or that controlled strategic crossings were able to grow even faster. This cycle reinforced itself over time. Eventually, many villages would come together into large urban centers, creating a type of social life in the city that looked very different from village life.SourcesBickler, Simon H. “Early Pottery Exchange along the South Coast of Papua New Guinea.” Archaeology in Oceania 32, no. 2 (1997): 151–62.Brown, Cynthia Stokes. Big History: From the Big Bang to the Present. New York: New Press: Distributed by W.W. Norton, 2007. Bulliet, Richard W. The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History. Boston, MA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, 2011.Christian, David. Maps of Time: An Introduction to Big History. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011.Golitko, Mark, Matthew Schauer, and John Edward Terrell. “Identification of Fergusson Island Obsidian on the Sepik Coast of Northern Papua New Guinea.” Archaeology in Oceania 47, no. 3 (2012): 151–56.Kirch, Patrick V. “Prehistoric Exchange in Western Melanesia.” Annual Review of Anthropology 20 (1991): 141–65.Lape, Peter V. “A Highway and a Crossroads: Island Southeast Asia and Culture Contact Archaeology.” Archaeology in Oceania 38, no. 2 (2003): 102–9.Quintus, Seth J. “Terrestrial Food Production and Land Use in Prehistoric Samoa: An Example from Olosega Island, Manu’a, American Samoa.” Archaeology in Oceania 47, no. 3 (2012): 133–40.Specht, Jim, Richard Fullagar, Robin Torrence, and Neville Baker. “Prehistoric Obsidian Exchange on Melanesia: A Perspective from the Talasea Sources.” Australian Archaeology, no. 27 (1988): 3–16.Author BioEman M. Elshaikh holds an MA in social sciences from and is pursuing a PhD at the University of Chicago, where she also teaches writing. She is a writer and researcher, and has taught K-12 and undergraduates in the US and in the Middle East. Eman was previously a World History Fellow at Khan Academy, where she worked closely with the College Boardto develop curriculum for AP world history.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader16Village Networks (1150L)Eman M. ElshaikhIntroductionOne of the most significant moments in human history was the dawn of farming. It didn't all happen at the same time or to the same extent across societies, but the switch from looking for food to growing it changed everything. Farming allowed humans to actually store extra food, leaving more time for activities that weren't always about eating. In this way, the development of agriculture made it possible for humans to establish complex societies.As with most big changes, these civilizations didn't appear overnight. Cities, states and societies evolved over a long period of human history. Most communities from this period lived in villages and small towns, andeven the Roman Empire was mostly people living in small, agricultural settlements.These early villages grew in different ways. Some eventually developed into large urban population centers and parts of states. Others remained self-sufficient villages, exchanging with other villages in networks. We don't have written records from most villages, but archeological excavations have unearthed much information about village life. Things like clothing and mud homes do not usually survive after thousands of years, but pottery and other artifacts last longer. Looking at the surviving objects of early societies, archeologists and historians have been able to reconstruct a story about early village life.Social life before the cityWhat was life like before farming gave us all this free time? Many scholars consider earlier foraging societies to be largely egalitarian, meaning that all people were treated equally. It seems like this continued to be the case in early farming villages, where people had relatively equal social status. Most people living in villages spent the majority of their time producing food. Hunting, foraging, caring for animals and growing food was still everyone's primary job. Although some people began to work on storing and preserving food, labor was mostly divided by gender, with women not only spending more time taking care of small children but also participating in food production. However, these gender divisions did not necessarily mean gender inequalities.How do historians know this? Archeological evidence shows that people in villages probably shared tools and workspaces. Excavations of ancient sites in Ukraine and Turkey show that homes were mostly about the same size, and the objects in homes and graves were of relatively equal value. Analysis of human bones also tells us that people living in villages had similar diets, meaning no one ate better than anyone else.People living in farming communities had very different lives from their hunter-gatherer ancestors. They lived in smaller areas,allowing diseases to spread much faster, and some research suggests that people had more anxieties about diseases. As their food supply became increasingly dependent on favorable environmental conditions, they worried more about the weather, too. The weather was so important that it influenced many spiritual beliefs and practices. Honoring the source of life and the Earth were often at the center of early religious beliefs. Some artifacts found in early villages suggest that women were regarded as the source of life because they symbolized fertility. For example, goddess figures found in the ancient site Çatalhüyük represent feminine deities.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader17However, that celebration of the feminine did not exactly put farming communities at the forefront of gender equality. As these villages grew, they introduced things such as permanent dwellings, the concept of ownership and a more specific definition of family. As a result, gender hierarchies tended to intensify. Family systems, in general, became more complicated and rigid. Hunter-gatherer societies had needed full-time effort from all men and women to stay fed, but the new farming communities could build up surpluses of food, allowing women to have more children. Over time, most women's lives became less about food production and more about children and maintaining small family homes.Before long-distance tradeUsually, when we talk about trade and its tremendous impact on human history, we think of ships crossing oceans. Long before any of that happened, though,villages began trading with each other in local networks, and that development was also important. When farming villages started trading with nomadic foraging communities and other farming communities, they could get their hands on things like obsidian. This was a hard volcanic glass that villagers used to create many sharp cutting and piercing tools. Old-school obsidian hardware wasn't just found in Turkey. Archeologists have also traced obsidian trade among village networks in the many islands of Oceaniain the Pacific Ocean.The Lapita culture, which existed from about 1600 to 500 BCE in the Pacific Islands, left behind plenty of obsidian artifacts, as well as ceramics, marine shells, and plants. The Lapita were the ancestors of historic cultures in Polynesia, Micronesia, and Melanesia. The excavation sites on these islands suggest that inter-island trade occurred way before long-distance trade routes emerged. In the Americas, coastal villages traded fish, mollusks, and shells with inland villages. The inland villages cultivated corn, potatoes, quinoa, and cattle, specifically llamas.Once you start trading potatoes and llamas, it isn't long before you're building roads, bridges, and irrigation and drainage systems. This kind of trade also contributed to food surpluses and specialization as villages grew to be more productive. In studying the lives of people living in village communities, historians can see the emergence of new social functions. More people made pottery, wove baskets and cloth, and worked with leather and wood. Labor became increasingly divided, and larger projects needed to be coordinated by administrators and leaders. This resulted in greater social hierarchies, with more defined notions of property and class.Sure enough, the archeological record bears this out. Burial sites start to look very different from one another, with some graves—including those of children—containing gold artifacts and jewelry, while others did not. The fact that even children had such valuable items in their graves suggests that people in villages and towns had begun to acquire private wealth. They transferred it between generations, providing evidence of the beginning of social classes.Similarly, gender roles generally changed. Male heads of family tended to gain control over wealth, and political considerations required more defined families and strategic marriage alliances. However, this didn't happen everywhere in quite the same way. There was still plenty of variety in the way people understood gender and family in different regions of the world.Trade helped villages to grow, but village networks also boosted trade in a big way. As trade routes grew, villages located near trade hubs or that controlled strategic crossings were able to grow even faster. This cycle reinforced itself over time. Eventually, many villages would come together into large city centers, creating a type of social life that looked very different from village life.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader18Village Networks (980L)Eman M. ElshaikhIntroductionOne of the most significant moments in human history was the dawn of farming. It didn't all happen at the same time across societies, but the switch from looking for food to growing it changed everything.Farming allowed humans to begin to store extra food, leaving more time for other activities. In this way, agriculture made it possible for humans to build complex societies.As with most big changes, these societies didn't appear overnight. Cities and states evolved over a long period of human history. Most people from this period lived in villages and small towns, and even the Roman Empire was mostly people living in small settlements.These early villages grew in different ways. Some eventually developed into large city centers. Others remained self-sufficient villages, exchanging with other villages in networks. We don't have written records from most villages, but archaeological excavations have revealed a lot of information. Looking at the surviving objects of early societies, archaeologists have been able to reconstruct a story about early village life.Social life before the cityWhat was life like before farming gave us all this free time? Many scholars consider earlier foraging societies to be largely egalitarian. That means that all people were treated equally and no one had more power than anyone else. This continued to be the case in early farming villages where people had relatively equal social status. Most people living in villages spent the majority of their time producing food. Labor was mostly divided by gender. Women spent more time taking care of small children but also participated in food production. However, these gender divisions did not necessarily mean gender inequalities.How do historians know this? Evidence shows that people in villages probably shared tools and workspaces. Excavations of ancient sites in Ukraine and the town of Çatalhüyük in Turkey show that homes were mostly about the same size, and the objects in homes and graves were of relatively equal value. Studies of human bones also tell us thatpeople living in villages had similar diets. That means that no one ate better food than anyone else.People living in farming communities had much different lives from their hunter-gatherer ancestors. They lived in smaller areas, which allowed diseases to spread much faster. Some research suggests that people worried more about diseases, too. As their food supply became increasingly dependent on favorable environmental conditions, people also worried more about the weather. The weather was so important that it influenced many spiritual beliefs and practices. Honoring the source of life and the Earth were often at the center of early religious beliefs. Some artifacts suggest that women were regarded as the source of life because they symbolized fertility.However, that celebration of the feminine did not mean farming communities were models of gender equality. As these villages grew, they introduced things such as permanent homes and the concept of ownership. A more specific definition of the family developed, too. As a result, gender hierarchies tended to intensify. Family systems became more complicated and rigid. Hunter-gatherer societies needed full-time
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader19effort from all men and women to stay fed. The new farming communities, however, could build up storesof food, allowing women to have more children. Over time, most women's lives became more focused on children and maintaining small family homes.Before long-distance tradeUsually, when we talk about trade, we think of ships crossing oceans. Long before any of that happened, though, villages began trading with each other in local networks. That development was also important. When farming villages started trading with other groups, they could get their hands on things like obsidian. This was a hard volcanic glass that villagers used to create sharp cutting tools. Obsidian artifacts weren't just found in Turkey. Archeologists have also traced obsidian trade among village networks in the many islands of Oceania in the Pacific Ocean. Evidence suggests that trade between islands occurred way before long-distance trade routes emerged. The Lapita culture, which existed from about 1600 to 500 BCE in the Pacific Islands, left behind plenty of obsidian artifacts, as well as ceramics, marine shells, and plants. The Lapita were the ancestors of historic cultures in Polynesia, Micronesia, and Melanesia.In the Americas, coastal villages traded fish, mollusks, and shells with inland villages. The inland villages cultivated corn, potatoes, and llamas.Once you start trading potatoes and llamas, it isn't long before you're building roads and bridges. This kind of trade also contributed to specialization, meaning people had different kinds of jobs. In studying village communities, historians can see the emergence of new social roles. More people made pottery, wove baskets and cloth, and worked with leather and wood. Labor became increasingly divided, and larger projects needed to be coordinated by leaders. Greater social hierarchies emerged as people had more defined roles. Sure enough, the archeological record bears this out. Burial sites start to look very different from one another.For example, some graves—including those of children—contained gold artifacts and jewelry, while others did not. The fact that even children hadsuch valuable items in their graves suggests that people had begun to acquire private wealth. They transferred it between generations, providing evidence of the beginning of social classes.Similarly, gender roles generally changed. For example, male heads of family tended to gain control over wealth, leaving women with less power. Political considerations required more defined families and strategic marriages. However, this did not happen everywhere in quite the same way. There was still plenty of varietyin the way people understood gender and family in different regions of the world.Trade helped villages to grow, but village networks also boosted trade in a big way. As trade routes grew, villages located in strategic areas were able to grow even faster. This cycle reinforced itself over time. Eventually, many villages would come together into large city centers. This produced a type of social life that looked very different from village life.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader20Village Networks (850L)Eman M. ElshaikhIntroductionOne of the most important moments in human history was the beginning of farming. It didn't happen at the same time across all societies. However, the switch from looking for food to growing it changed everything. Farming allowed humans to store extra food, leaving more time for other activities. In this way, farming made it possible for humans to build complex societies.As with most big changes, these societies did not appear overnight. Cities and states evolved over a long period of human history. Most people from this period lived in villages and small towns. Even the Roman Empire was mostly people living in small settlements.These early villages grew in different ways. Some eventually developed into large city centers. Others remained independent villages, exchanging with other villages in networks. We don't have written records from most villages, but archeological studies have revealed a lot of information. Archeologists have been able to reconstruct a story about early village life.Social life before the cityWhat was life like before farming gave us all this free time? Many scholars consider earlier hunter-gatherer societies to be largely egalitarian. That means that all people were treated equally and no one had more power than anyone else. This continued to be the case in early farming villages. People in these communities were relatively equal. Most people living in villages spent the majority of their time producing food. Labor was mostly divided by gender. Women spent more time taking care of small children but also participated in food production. However, these gender divisions did not necessarily mean gender inequalities.How do historians know this? Evidence shows that people in villages probably shared tools and workspaces. Excavations of ancient sites in Ukraine and the town of Çatalhüyük in Turkey show that houses were mostly about the same size. Objects in homes and graves were of relatively equal value, too.People living in farming communities had very different lives from hunter-gatherers. They lived in smaller areas, which allowed diseases to spread much faster. Some studies suggest that people worried more about diseases, too. Farming communities were also more dependent on favorable environmental conditions. For this reason, they worried more about the weather. The importance of weather is evident in early religious beliefs and practices. Farming communities were not models of gender equality, though. As these villages grew, they introduced new concepts such as permanent homes and the idea of owning things. A more specific definition of the family developed, too. As a result, gender hierarchies tended to intensify. Family systems became more complicated and rigid. Hunter-gatherer societies had needed full-time effort from all men and women to stay fed. However, the new farming communities could build up stores of food. This allowed women to have more children. Over time, most women's lives became more focused on children and maintaining small family homes.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader21Before long-distance tradeWhen we talk about trade, we usually think of ships crossing oceans. Long before any of that happened, though, villages began trading with each other in local networks. That change was also important. It allowed farming villages to get their hands on things like obsidian. This is a black glass that comes from cooled volcanic lava. Villagers in Çatalhüyük used it to make sharp cutting tools. Parts of obsidian tools weren't just found in Turkey. Archeologists have also found evidence of obsidian among the Pacific Ocean islands. Trade between islands occurred way before long-distance trade routes emerged. The Lapita culture existed from about 1600 to 500 BCE in the Pacific Islands. They left behind plenty of obsidian artifacts, as well as ceramics, marine shells, and plants. The Lapita were the ancestors of historic cultures in Polynesia, Micronesia, and Melanesia.In the Americas, coastal villages traded fish, mollusks, and shells with inland villages. The inland villages grew corn and potatoes and raised llamas.Once you start trading potatoes and llamas, it isn't long before you are building roads and bridges. This kind of trade also increased specialization. That means that people had different kinds of jobs. As villages grew, people took on new social roles. Labor became increasingly divided, and larger projects needed to be managed by leaders. Greater social hierarchies emerged as people had more defined jobs.Gender roles also changed. For example, male heads of family tended to gain control over wealth, leavingwomen with less power. However, this didn't happen everywhere in quite the same way. There was still plenty of variety in the way people understood gender and family in different regions of the world.Trade helped villages to grow, but village networks also boosted trade in a big way. As trade routes grew, villages located in key areas were able to grow even faster. This cycle reinforced itself over time. Eventually, many villages would come together into large city centers. This produced a type of social life that looked very different from village life.Village Networks (600L)Eman M. ElshaikhIntroductionLong ago, humans were hunter-gatherers. They looked for their food in nature. Early humans collected plants and hunted for fresh meat. The beginning offarming was one of the biggest changes in human history.Farming allowed humans to store extra food. That left more time for other activities. In this way, farming made it possible for humans to build complex societies.These societies did not appear overnight. They developed over a long period of time. Most early communities lived in villages and small towns.These early villages grew in different ways. Some eventually became large cities. Others remained independent villages. We do not have written records from most villages. However, scientific studies have revealed a lot of information. Scientists have been able to reconstruct a story about early village life.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader22Social life before the cityWhat was life like before farming? Early hunter-gatherer societies were largely egalitarian. That means all people were treated equally. No one had more power than anyone else. This continued to be the case in early farming villages. People in these communities were equal. Most people living in villages spent their time producing food. Work was mostly divided by gender. Women spent more time taking care of children. However, they also helped to produce food. These gender divisions did not necessarily mean women were not treated equally.How do scientists know this? Digs at ancient sites in Ukraine and the town of Çatalhüyük in Turkey show that houses were mostly about the same size. Evidence shows that people in villages probably shared tools and workspaces. Objects in homes were of mostly equal value, too.Farming communities were different than foraging communities. People lived closer together, which meant disease could spread quickly. Farmers also worried more about weather since their food supply depended on it. The importance of weather is evident in early religious beliefs and practices. These societies were not models of equality. As villages grew, people developed new ideas. One of these was the idea of owning things. Before farming, everyone shared. Owning things made people less equal since some people had more than others. Farming also impacted gender roles. Over time, women focused less on producing food and more on caring for their children and homes. Before long-distance tradeEarly villages traded with each other in networks. This allowed them to acquire things like obsidian. Obsidian is a black glass that comes from cooled volcanic lava. It is used to make sharp cutting tools. Parts of obsidian tools have been found in Turkey and the Pacific Ocean islands.Historians use artifacts tolearn about early trade networks. For example, obsidian, ceramics, shells, and plants reveal that islands in Oceania traded with each other. In the Americas, coastal villages traded fish, mollusks, and shells with inland villages. The inland villages grewcorn and potatoes and raised llamas. Trade caused early villages to expand. People built roads and bridges to reach new areas. Trade also increased how people took on special tasks. That means people had different kinds of jobs. For example, some people focused on growing food. Others made tools or built buildings. Larger projects needed to be managed by leaders. As a result, some people became more powerful than others. Society became more unequal.Gender roles continued to change. For example, men often took control of the family's money. This left women with less power. However, this did not happen everywhere in quite the same way. People had different ideas of gender and family in different parts of the world.Trade helped villages to grow. Because of this, village networks also increased trade. Over time, villages in main areas became larger. Many turned into cities. This produced a new kind of life that was very different from village life.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader23Pastoralists, Nomads, and ForagersFarming was a major development, but not all humans began farming immediately. Here, we look at the lives of the pastoralists, nomads, and foragers who did not farm.Pastoralists, Nomads, and Foragers (1030L)Eman M. ElshaikhHistorians have long asked whether agriculture was a positive development for humans. It's equally important to ask: did everyone adopt agriculture? Actually, many communities didn't begin farming right away—or at all. Historians agree that agriculture did not take over fully or evenly. While the debate continues about whether or not farming improved humans' way of life, it's worth considering how non-agricultural communities differ from agricultural ones.What does it mean that farming was not adopted evenly? It's uneven because it spread to some places and not others. Many communities began farming independently, and they did so at very different times. Some began farming over 12,000 years ago, but other groups didn't farm for millennia after that. Today there are still communities who don't rely primarily on farming.Adoption was also uneven in the sense that it wasn't always adopted fullyor linearly. Some communities did a bit of farming, domesticated some animals, but remained largely nomadic. Others farmed some of the year and relied on trade at other times.Some communities who had previously farmed, like those occupying the Sahara region in Africa, became nomadic pastoralists as the region became more arid. Non-agricultural societies didn't disappear after the Neolithic Revolution. They still populated muchof the world, played important roles in trade networks, and had unique social structures.Different kinds of communitiesAs those who adopted agriculture settled into villages, towns, and cities, how did other communities live? Generally, their lives weren't as sedentary. But that doesn't mean that they didn't cultivate or domesticate anything. In fact, it's a mistake to think of agriculture and domestication as the same thing. Many groups domesticated animals and plants but didn't rely on them entirely orsettle down permanently to cultivate land. Others, called pastoralists, domesticated animals but didn't grow plants regularly, and they remained mostly nomadic. Still others mainly foraged, as their ancestors had for millennia. The distinction between these groups is blurry. Most communities during the early agrarian era relied on multiple ways of food production. Even settled farmers continued to hunt and fish.In the Americas, people mostly hunted and gathered and grew some plants. Herd animals like the alpaca and the llama were domesticated. Marine resources were abundant in some areas. In coastal South America, as well as in the Baltic region of northern Europe, fishing sustained large, wealthy settlements. These communities became sedentary about 5,000years ago. They didn't rely on farming, but they also weren't nomadic.Animals were critical to nomadic pastoralists' way of life. The horse was perhaps the single most important animal for pastoralist groups from the Eurasian steppe. The dry grasslands made farming difficult. Horses
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader24and other livestock provided protein in the form of dairy and sometimes meat. Their dung provided fuel, their hides clothing and shelter, and they were the primary transportation technology.Pastoralist groups like the Scythians were known for their expert command of horses and their military strength. Tools like saddles and stirrups made horses indispensable. The ancient Greek historian Herodotus (c. 484 –425 BCE), who encountered many nomadic groups during his travels in the Eurasian steppe, described Scythians as:"Having neither cities nor forts, and carrying their dwellings with them wherever they go: accustomed, moreover, one and all of them, to shoot from horseback: and living not by husbandry but on their cattle, their wagons the only houses that they possess, how can they fail of being unconquerable, and unassailable even."This passage from Herodotus' Historiesgives us some insight into the lifestyles of nomadic pastoralist groups during this period. But as with any source, we have to think about perspective. Many of the sources we have about nomadic groups were written by people from outside groups, like Herodotus. There are barely any first-hand accounts, as most nomadic communities didn't develop strong systems of writing and record-keeping. So, we must rely on outside sources and also study modern-day nomadic groups. Neither of these methods are perfect, but they allow scholars to gain a basic understanding of how some of these groups were organized. It's important to remember that in situations where sources are scarce, historians have to generalize.How were these groups generallyorganized? We know that family structures were important. Pastoral communities, like foragers, often moved in groups of five to a dozen families. They cooperated to manage labor and defend each other from outside groups. Their families weren't necessarilyas defined as those of settled farming families. In many cases, children born to married and unmarried parents who had the same social status. Of course, nomadic groups were diverse and had varying levels of complexity. Some pastoralists formed small confederations, and others, like the Xiongnu, built empires.Gender roles in nomadic groups—whether pastoralists or foragers—were usually relatively freer than in agrarian communities. Men typically cared for cattle, made weapons and other tools, hunted, and defended the communities. Women and children organized households, made food and clothing, and took care of small children. But when men were absent, particularly when they were away on military excursions, women took on almost all of the responsibility. When the group moved, women often took down and set up dwellings. They were also trained in riding and archery, as they sometimes had to defend their communities from outsiders. Women's graves sometimes contained weapons, suggesting they had a role in military life as well. One Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) Chinese historian, in describing a neighboring nomadic group, wrote that, "When drawing the calculations and plans, the males (men) defer to opinion of females (women) and settle on their own only the military affairs."Networks and exchangeBoth pastoralist and foraging societies had varying economic systems. Many of these systems included trade with settled communities. Pastoralists often traded dairy, meat, and wool for agricultural products, including carbohydrate-rich grains. Much of this trade was well-organized and continued for long periods of time. In fact, successful trade between non-agricultural communities often resulted in the creation of long-term settlements in some trade centers. Pastoralist nomads supplied and handled animals along the Silk Road. Silk Road travelers needed these nomads for transportation and protection. Many settlements began along the
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader25Silk Road. Trade between Anatolia and the Red Sea region resulted in the establishment of trade cities in the Middle East. In the Arabian Peninsula, Arab pastoralists supplied camels and led caravans across the sparse desert, in some cases making wheeled vehicles unnecessary.Non-agricultural communities benefitted from and contributed to trade networks. But they also had conflicts with settled farming groups. Many of the sources we have about pastoralist nomads describe them negatively. Sedentary agriculturalists were often part of powerful, affluent societies. But they were also vulnerable to attack. Being settled meant being tied to land and possessions; being nomadic meant having a mobile community with a mobile food supply. This allowed nomads to attack and plunder resources. They could gain access to agricultural products without having to farm or trade.Of course, this angered settled communities. One example of a major conflict was between the Chinese and neighboring pastoralist groups. Many Chinese dynasties launched massive war efforts to subdue these nomadic groups. The Han-dynasty historian Sima Qian (c. 147-87 BCE) wrote about the northern Xiongnu in his Records of the Grand Historian:"As early as the time of Emperors Yao and Shun and before, we hear of these people, known as Mountain Barbarians, Xianyun, or Hunzhu, living in the region of the northern barbarians and wandering from place to place pasturing their animals. The animals they raise consist mainly of horses, cows, and sheep.... They move about in search of water and pasture and have no walled cities or fixed dwellings, nor do they engage in any kind of agriculture. Their lands, however, are divided into regions under the control of various leaders. They have no writing, and even promises and agreements are only verbal. The little boys start out by learning to ride sheep and shoot birds and rats with a bow and arrow, and when they get a little older they shoot foxes and hares, which are used for food. Thus all the young men are able to use a bow and act as armed cavalry in time of war. It is their custom to herd their flocks in times of peace and make their living by hunting, but in periods of crisis they take up arms and go off on plundering and marauding expeditions. This seems to be their inborn nature. For long-range weapons they use bows and arrows, and swords and spears at close range. If the battle is going well for them they will advance, but if not, they will retreat, for they do not consider it a disgrace to run away. Their only concern is self-advantage, and they know nothing of propriety or righteousness."As we can see from this passage, Sima Qian considers the Xiongnu to be predatory, violent, and without morals. Many nomadic groups were described this way by sedentary societies. However, it's wise to be critical when reading these accounts from outsiders. Certainly, nomadic groups had their own systems of morality and value. Their conflicts with neighboring groups suggest that they were not always well-understood. In the end, we still learn much from these sources about how diverse non-agricultural communities lived, worked, and interacted with others.Sources“Horses: A Scythian’s Best Friend.” The British Museum Blog (blog), October 4, 2017. https://blog.britishmuseum.org/horses-a-scythians-best-friend/Brown, Cynthia Stokes. Big History: From the Big Bang to the Present. New York: New Press/W.W. Norton, 2007.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader26Bulliet, Richard W. The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History. Boston, MA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, 2011.Christian, David. Maps of Time: An Introduction to Big History. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011.Di Cosmo, Nicola. Ancient China and Its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asia History. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002.Graff, David Andrew, and Robin Higham. A Military History of China. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2012. Herodotus, and Francis R. B. Godolphin. “Herodotus: On the Scythians.” The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 32, no. 5 (1973): 129–49. https://doi.org/10.2307/3269235.Kradin, Nikolay. “Ancient Steppe Nomad Societies.” Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History, May 2018. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.013.3.Psarras, Sophia-Karin. “Pieces of Xiongnu Art.” Central Asiatic Journal 40, no. 2 (1996): 234–59. Rubinson, Karen S. “Herodotus and the Scythians.” Expedition Magazine, Summer 1975.Sahlins, Marshall. Stone Age Economics. Chicago: Aldine-Atherton, 1972.Shryock, Andrew, Daniel Lord Smail, and Timothy K. Earle. Deep History: The Architecture of Past and Present. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011.Sima, Qian, and Burton Watson. Records of the Grand Historian. New York: Renditions-Columbia University Press, 1993. Spier, Fred. Big History and the Future of Humanity. Second edition. Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Wiley Blackwell, 2015.Vergara, Germán. “Animals in Latin American History.” Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Latin American History, May 2018. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199366439.013.436Author BioEman M. Elshaikh holds an MA in social sciences from and is pursuing a PhD at the University of Chicago, where she also teaches writing. She is a writer and researcher, and has taught K-12 and undergraduates in the US and in the Middle East. Eman was previously a World History Fellow at Khan Academy, where she worked closely with the College Board to develop curriculum for AP world history.Pastoralists, Nomads, and Foragers (950L)Eman M. ElshaikhHistorians have long asked whether the development of agriculture was a positive step for humans. It's equally important to ask: did everyone adopt agriculture? Actually, many communities didn't begin farming right away—or at all. Historians agree that agriculture did not take over fully or evenly.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader27Many communities began farming independently, and they did so at very different times. Some began farming more than 12,000 years ago, but other groups didn't farm for thousands of years after that. Today there are still communities that do not rely primarily on farming.The shift to farming was also uneven in the sense that farming wasn't always adopted fully. Some communities did a bit of farming but remained largely nomadic. Others farmed some of the year and relied on trade at other times. Some communities that had previously farmed eventually gave up farming. This happened, for example, in the Sahara region in Africa, where communities were forced to stop farming as the desert spread.Non-agricultural societies didn't disappear after farming became common. They were still found in much of the world.Different kinds of communitiesIt would be a mistake to think that communities that didn't adopt agriculture grew nothing. Many groups did grow some crops but didn't rely on them entirely or settle down permanently to farm the land. Others, called pastoralists, raised animalsbut didn't grow plants regularly, and they remained mostly nomadic. Still, others mainly foraged or hunted and gathered, as their ancestors had for thousands of years.In the Americas, people mostly foraged and grew some plants. Herd animals like the alpaca and the llama were domesticated. In coastal South America, as well as in the Baltic region of Northern Europe, fishing supported large, permanent settlements. Animals were critical to nomadic pastoralists' way of life. The horse was perhaps the single most important animal for pastoralist groups from the Eurasian steppe. The dry grasslands made farming difficult. Horses and other livestock provided protein in the form of dairy and sometimes meat. Their dung provided fuel, their hides clothing and shelter, and they were the primary form of transportation.How were pastoralist groups organized socially? We know that family structures were important. Pastoral communities, like foragers, often moved in groups of five to a dozen families. They cooperated to manage labor and to defend each other from outside groups. Their families weren't necessarily as defined as those of sedentary, or settled farming groups. Of course, nomadic groups were varied and had different levels of complexity. Some pastoralists formedsmall confederations, and others, like the Xiongnu, built empires.In nomadic communities, gender roles were typically freer than in agricultural communities. Men typically cared for cattle or other herd animals and made weapons and other tools. They alsohunted and defended the communities. Women made food and clothing and took care of small children. However, when men were absent, women took on almost all of the responsibility. When the group moved, women often took down and set up dwellings. They were also trained in riding and archery, as they sometimes had to defend their communities from outsiders. Women's graves sometimes contained weapons, suggesting they had a role in military life as well. Networks and exchangeBoth pastoralist and foraging societies had varying economic systems. Many of these systems included trade with sedentary communities. Pastoralists often traded dairy, meat, and wool for agricultural products, including grains. Much of this trade was well organized and continued for long periods of time. In fact, successful trade between non-agricultural communities often resulted in the creation of long-term
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader28settlements in some trade centers. Pastoralist nomads supplied and handled animals along the Silk Road, and provided protection for Silk Road travelers. In the Arabian Peninsula, Arab pastoralists supplied camels and led caravans across the desert.Non-agricultural communities benefited from and contributed to trade networks. However, they also had conflicts with sedentary farming groups. Many of the sources we have about pastoralist nomads describe them negatively. Sedentary agriculturalists were often part of powerful, rich societies. However, they were also at risk of being attacked. Settled communities were tied to land and possessions, while nomadic ones could move about quickly and easily. This allowed nomads to attack and plunder resources. They could acquire agricultural products without having to farm or trade.Of course, this angered sedentary communities. One example of a major conflict was the long-term struggle between the Chinese and neighboring pastoralist groups. Many Chinese dynasties launched huge war efforts against these nomadic groups. The Han-dynasty historian Sima Qian (c. 147–87 BCE) wrote about the northern Xiongnu in his "Records of the Grand Historian." The Xiongnu, he said, wandered "from place to place pasturing their animals ... They move about in search of water and pasture and have no walled cities or fixed dwellings, nor do they engage in any kind of agriculture ... It is their custom to herd their flocks in times of peace and make their living by hunting, but in periods of crisis they take up arms and go off on plundering and marauding expeditions. This seems to be their inborn nature ... Their only concern is self-advantage, and they know nothing of propriety or righteousness."As we can see from this passage, Sima Qian considers the Xiongnu to be thieving, violent and without morals. Many nomadic groups were described this way by sedentary societies. However, it is wise to be critical when reading these accounts from outsiders. Certainly, nomadic groups had their own concepts of right and wrong. Their conflicts with neighboring groups suggest that they were not always well understood. In the end, though, we still learn much from the descriptions of outsiders. Their accounts help to reveal how non-agricultural communities lived, worked, and interacted with others.Pastoralists, Nomads, and Foragers (840L)Eman M. ElshaikhHistorians have long asked whether the development of agriculture was a step forward for humans. It's equally important to ask another question: did all societies adopt agriculture? Actually, many communities did not begin farming right away—or at all. Agriculture did not take over fully or evenly.Some communities began farming more than 12,000 years ago. Yet, other groups didn't farm for thousands of years after that. Today there are still communities that do not rely primarily on farming.In addition, farming was uneven in the sense that it wasn't always adopted fully. Some communities did a bit of farming but remained largely nomadic. They wandered from place to place, and never settled down permanently. Other groups farmed some of the year and relied on trade at other times. Some communitiesthat had previously farmed gave up farming. This happened, for example, in the Sahara region in Africa. Communities there were forced to stop farming as the desert spread.Non-agricultural societies didn't disappear after farming became common. They were still found in much of the world.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader29Different kinds of communitiesIt would be a mistake to think that communities that didn't adopt agriculture grew nothing. Many groups did grow some crops but did not rely on them entirely. They never settled down permanently to farm the land. Others, called pastoralists, raised animals but didn't grow plants regularly. They remained mostly nomadic. Still, others mainly foraged or hunted and gathered, as their ancestors had for thousands of years.In the Americas, people mostly foraged and grew some plants. In coastal South America, as well as in the Baltic region of Northern Europe, large, settled communities depended on fishing. Animals were central to nomadic pastoralists' way of life. For pastoralist groups from the Eurasian steppe, the horse was the single most important animal. Horses provided protein in the form of dairy and sometimes meat. Their dung provided fuel, and their hides provided clothing and shelter. Horses were also the main form of transportation.How were pastoralist groups organized socially? Like foragers, they often moved in groups of five to a dozen families. They cooperated to manage labor and to defend each other from outside groups. Some pastoralists formed small confederations. Others, like theXiongnu in China, built empires.In nomadic communities, gender roles were typically freer than in agricultural communities. Men usually cared for cattle or other herd animals and made weapons and other tools. They also hunted and defended the communities. Women made food and clothing and took care of small children. However, when men were absent, women took on almost all responsibilities. When the group moved, women often took down and set up dwellings. They were also trained in riding and archery, as they sometimes had to defend their communities from outsiders. Women's graves sometimes contained weapons, suggesting they had a role in military life as well. Networks and exchangeBoth pastoralist and foraging societies partly relied on trade. Both traded with sedentary or settled, communities. Pastoralists often traded dairy, meat, and wool for agricultural products, including grains. Pastoralist nomads supplied and handled animals along the Silk Road. They also provided protection for Silk Road travelers.In the Arabian Peninsula, Arab pastoralists supplied camels and led caravans across the desert.Non-agricultural communities were also often in conflict with sedentary farming groups. Sedentary agriculturalists tended to be part of rich societies. They were tied to their land and possessions. By contrast, nomadic communities could move about quickly and easily. This allowed nomads to attack and seize what they wanted. They could acquire agricultural products without having to farm or trade.Of course, thisangered sedentary communities. One example of a major conflict was the long-term struggle between the Chinese and neighboring pastoralist groups. Many Chinese dynasties launched huge war efforts against these nomadic groups. The Han-dynasty historian SimaQian (c. 147–87 BCE) wrote about the northern Xiongnu in his "Records of the Grand Historian." The Xiongnu, he said, wandered "from place to place pasturing their animals ... They move about in search of water and pasture and have no walled cities or fixed dwellings ... It is their custom to herd their flocks in times of peace and make their living by hunting, but in periods of crisis they take up arms and go off on plundering and marauding expeditions. This seems to be their inborn nature ... Their only concern is self-advantage, and they know nothing of ... righteousness."
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader30As we can see from this passage, Sima Qian had a very low opinion of the Xiongnu. He considered them to be thieves with no morals. Many nomadic groups were described this way by sedentary societies. However, it is wise to be critical when reading these accounts from outsiders. Nomadic groups had their own ideas of right and wrong. They were not always well understood by others. Still, the descriptions of outsiders can be very informative. They help reveal how non-agricultural communities lived, worked, and interacted with others.Pastoralists, Nomads, and Foragers (710L)Eman M. ElshaikhHistorians have long asked whether the rise of agriculture was a step forward for humans. It is equally important to ask another question: did all societies adopt agriculture? Actually, many communities did not start farming right away. Others never did. Agriculture did not take over fully or evenly around the world.Some communities began farming more than 12,000 years ago. Other groups didn't farm for thousands of years after that. Today there are still communities that do very little farming.Farming also was uneven in the sense that it was not always adopted fully. Some communities did a bit of farming but remained largely nomadic. They wandered from place to place, and never settled down permanently. Other groups only farmed part of the year. They got what they needed through trade at other times. Some communities that had previously farmed gave up farming. For example, this happened in the Sahara region in Africa. Communities there were forced to stop farming as the desert spread.Non-agricultural societies didn't disappear after farming became common. They were still found in much of the world.Different kinds of communitiesIt would be wrong to think that communities that did not adopt agriculture grew nothing. Many groups did grow some crops. However, they never settled down permanently to farm the land. Others, called pastoralists, raised animals butdidn't grow plants regularly. They remained mostly nomadic. Still, others mainly foraged or hunted and gathered. They continued to live as their ancestors had for thousands of years.In the Americas, people mostly foraged and grew some plants. In coastal South America, settled communities depended on fishing. Animals were central to nomadic pastoralists' way of life. For pastoralist groups from the Eurasian steppe, the horse was the single most important animal. Horses provided food in the form of dairy and sometimes meat. Their dung provided fuel. Their hides provided clothing and shelter. Horses were also the main form of transportation.How were pastoralist groups organized socially? Like foragers, they often moved in groups of five to a dozen families.These groups worked together and defended each other from outsiders. Some pastoralist groups joined together with other pastoralists to form small confederacies. Others, like the Xiongnu in China, built empires.In nomadic communities, gender roles were usually freer than in farming communities. Men usually cared for cattle or other herd animals. They made weapons and other tools. They also hunted and defended the
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader31communities. Women made food and clothing and took care of small children. However, when men were gone, women took on almost all responsibilities. When the group moved, women often took down and set up dwellings. They were also trained in riding and archery, as they sometimes had to defend their communities from outsiders. Some nomadic women may have served as warriors.Networks and exchangeBoth pastoralist and foraging societies partly relied on trade. Both traded with sedentary or settled, communities. Pastoralists offered dairy, meat, and wool. In return, they received agricultural products, including grains. Pastoralist nomads supplied and handled animals along the Silk Road. They also provided protection for Silk Road travelers. In the Arabian Peninsula, Arab pastoralists supplied camels to traders. They also led caravans across the desert. These caravans carried goods from around the world.Non-agricultural communities also often battled sedentary farming groups. Sedentary agriculturalists tended to be part of rich societies. They were tied to their land and possessions. By contrast, nomadic communities could move about quickly and easily. This allowed them to attack and seize what they wanted. They could acquire food and goods without having to farm or trade.Of course, this angered sedentary communities. The Chinese, for example, were constantly fighting with nomadic groups. Chinese historian Sima Qian (who lived from about 147–87 BCE) wrote about the nomadic Xiongnu in his "Records of the Grand Historian." The Xiongnu, he said, sometimes raided farming communities. They simply stole what they wanted by force.Sima Qian had a very low opinion of the Xiongnu. He considered them to be invaders and thieves. Many nomadic groups were described this way by sedentary societies. However, it is wise to be critical when reading these accounts from outsiders. Nomadic groups had their own ideas of right and wrong. They were not always well understood by others. Still, the descriptions of outsiders can be very informative. They help to show what life was like for non-agricultural communities.Pastoralists, Nomads, and Foragers (600L)Eman M. ElshaikhThe switch from hunting and gathering to farming is often seen as a major stage in the growth of human civilization. However, it might not be as simple as that. Not all societies adopted agriculture at the same time. Some never did. Agriculture did not take over fully around the world. Its spread was not even.Some communities began farming more than 12,000 years ago. Others did not farm for thousands of years after that. Today there are still communities that do very little farming.Farming also was uneven in the sense that it was not always adopted fully. Some communities did a bit of farming but remained mostly nomadic. They wandered from place to place, and never settled down permanently. Other groups only farmed part of the year. At other times, they got what they needed through trade. Non-agricultural societies did not disappear after farming became common. They were still found in much of the world.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader32Different kinds of communitiesIt would be wrong to think that communities that did not adopt agriculture grew nothing. Many did grow some crops. However, they never settled down permanently to farm the land. Others raised animals but did not grow plants regularly. These groups are called pastoralists. They remained mostly nomadic. Still, others mainly foraged or hunted and gathered. They continued to live as their ancestors had for thousands of years.Animals were central to nomadic pastoralists' way of life. For pastoralist groups from the Eurasian steppe, the horse was the most important animal. A steppe is a dry, grassy plain. Horses provided food in the form of milk. At times they were also eaten. Their hides provided clothing and shelter. Horses were also the main form of transportation.Pastoralists often moved in groups of five to twelve families. These groups worked together. They also defended each other from outsiders. Some pastoralist groups joined up with other pastoralists. Together, they formed small confederacies. Other pastoralist groups, like the Xiongnu in China, built empires.In nomadic communities, gender roles were usually freer than in farming communities. Men usually cared for cattle or other herd animals. They made weapons and other tools. They also hunted and defended the community. Women made food and clothing. They took care of small children as well. However, when men were gone, women took on almost all responsibilities. They were also trained in riding and the bow-and-arrow. At times, they had to defend their communities from outsiders. Some nomadic women might have served as warriors.Networks and exchangePastoralist societies partly relied on trade. They traded with sedentary, or settled, communities. This was true of foraging societies as well. Pastoralists offered dairy, meat, and wool. In return, they received crops. Pastoralist nomads supplied and handled animals along the Silk Road. The Silk Road was a major trade route. It connected Europe and Asia. In the Arabian Peninsula, Arab pastoralists supplied camels to traders. They also led caravans across the desert. A caravan is a group of people traveling together. Many caravans carried goods from around the world.Non-agricultural communities didn't only trade with farming groups. They also battled them. Sedentary agriculturalists were often part of rich societies. They were tied to their land and possessions. By contrast, nomads could move about quickly and easily. This allowed them to attack and take what they wanted.Of course, this angered sedentary communities. The Chinese,for example, were constantly fighting with nomadic groups. The Xiongnu were one of these groups. Chinese historian Sima Qian (who lived from around 147–87 BCE) wrote about the Xiongnu. They sometimes raided farming communities, he said. Xiongnu warriors arrived heavily armed. Then, they simply took what they wanted.Sima Qian had a very low opinion of the Xiongnu. He considered them to be invaders and thieves. Many nomadic groups were described this way by sedentary societies. However, that was just their point of view. They were outsiders who did not fully understand nomadic life. Nomadic groups had their own ideas of right and wrong. Still, the descriptions of outsiders can be very useful. They help to show what life was like for non-agricultural communities.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader33Regional Trade NetworksThree millennia ago, complex societies were already interacting in two large regional trade networks. Then, 500 years ago they connected as one global network that still exists today.Regional Trade Networks (1090L)Nicole MagieWhere'd you get that shirt?We don't think much about trade today. The shirt you're wearing and the food you eat for lunch probably traveled thousands of miles. Today, the things we use circulate thousands of miles around the globe, and we rarely think about it. But during Era 3, if you bought clothing made far away or ate exotic spices like cinnamon or pepper, you'd be the talk of the town. Merchants in ancient Afro-Eurasia and Mesoamerica went to great lengths to move trade goods around the world. During Era 3, thousands of years ago, long before our current global economy, complex regional networks were emerging around the world.Why was there trade? In a word, cities. People moved to cities as new agricultural technologies created surplus food. Not everyone needed to farm anymore. People became artisans. They mined. They worked metal. They made wine, silk, and ceramics. Yet people still wanted or needed things that they couldn't grow or make themselves. As cities grew, some people became very wealthy. To show off how wealthy and powerful they were, they sought out luxury goods that could only be bought from far away at great expense. And so, ancient trade networks developed, often to satisfy the wishes of the wealthy, but also to bring necessary food andtools for non-elites.Roads, winds, and camels: The Afro-Eurasian networkIf you paid attention to the paragraphs above, you may have noticed an unfamiliar word: Afro-Eurasia. Just eleven letters and (sometimes) a hyphen. The word might seem small and innocent, but it contains multitudes. Three continents (Africa, Europe, and Asia), over half of the land on Earth, and 80 to 90 percent of all human population, to be exact. That's a lot. Why do historians lump so much stuff into a single word? Why does it make sense to talk about it as one supercontinent? One reason is trade. Long before airplanes and the Internet, vast webs of merchant networks linked different regions of these three continents together. Goods traveled from merchant to merchant across thousands of miles of ocean, desert, and mountain in a sort of relay race.The regional exchange networks of Afro-Eurasia were much more extensive and active than those that developed in other parts of the world. But why? This region included many of world's oldest agricultural societies. It included expansive plains, navigable rivers, and mountain ranges that could be traversed. All of this geography and history helped trade grow. In addition, Afro-Eurasia had pack animals to carry goods over long distances, including horses, cattle, elephants, and Bactrian camels. These impressive, two-humped camels could carry heavy loads through bitterly cold winters and blazing desert heat. Camels are sometimes called the "ship of the desert". But Afro-Eurasian trade also expanded because of actual ships. The Mediterranean Sea and Indian Ocean made maritime trade relatively easy, predictable, and safe. So, the
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader34Afro-Eurasian trade networks have been around the longest, but geography, lots of pack animals, and sailing technologyalso helps explain the great scale of the Afro-Eurasian networks.All sorts of trade goods mingled along these routes, and many goods were made in more than one region, but many regions were known for certain goods. Silk originally came only from China and made its way across the vastness of Asia to the Mediterranean Sea and Indian Ocean. Indeed, silk was so important that we call the complex routes that stretched overland from Egypt to China the "Silk Road". But more than silk moved along these routes. India was known for cotton and spices like nutmeg and pepper. Arabia was a source of luxuries like frankincense and spices like cinnamon and cloves. Ivory and gold were traded from the coast of East Africa, grain from Egypt, and iron from Nubia and the upper Nile. Lapis lazuli came only from Central Asia. On the other side of Afro-Eurasia, Greek and Roman wine and glassware was coveted by the Chinese. Thanks to new metalworking technology, iron tools became very valuable during this era. These iron tools and the technologies to make them spread across Afro-Eurasian trade routes. Many of these goods and the routes along which they moved depended on pastoralists, such as the Scythians and Xiongnu. And the pastoralists had their own valuable trade good: horses. Finally, in every region of this ancient system, enslaved people were also bought and sold.We have evidence that regional trade networks existed in Afro-Eurasia both at the beginning and end of Era3. Take a look at the picture below. This is the Standard of Ur. It was created in the Mesopotamian city of Ur (in present-day Iraq) around 2400 BCE. But it is made from materials not found in Mesopotamia. The blue rock is lapis lazuli from Bactria (in present-day Afghanistan). The figures are made of white shells from the Persian Gulf. And the red stone is marble from India. The trade networks that made the Standard of Ur possible existed over 4,400 years ago, and they continued to expand during Era 3. The Standard of Ur is a historical artifact, but we also have written evidence from later in Era 3 that indicates trade networks extended from the Mediterranean Sea to the Pacific Ocean. ThePeriplus of the Erythraean Seais a first-century CE sailing guide written in Greek. It describes how merchants should sail between ports in the Indian Ocean and what times of year to do so. It also provides some idea of the sorts of goods that were traded in different parts of the world. Here's how it describes one port in western India:"There are imported into this market-town, wine, Italian preferred, also Laodicean and Arabian; copper, tin, and lead; coral and topaz; thin clothing and inferior sorts of all kinds; bright-colored girdles a cubit wide...sweet clover, flint glass...gold and silver coin, on which there is a profit when exchanged for the money of the country; and ointment, but not very costly and not much. And for the King there are brought into those places very costly vessels of silver, singing boys, beautiful maidens for the harem, fine wines, thin clothing of the finest weaves, and the choicest ointments. There are exported from these places...ivory, agate and carnelian, lycium, cotton cloth of all kinds, silk cloth, mallow cloth, yarn, long pepper and such other things as are brought here from the various market-towns. Those bound for this market-town from Egypt make the voyage favorably about the month of July."India sat at the center of the Indian Ocean, and many different goods flowed through the ports of India, on their way west to the Mediterranean and on their way east to China and every point in between.The trade across land and sea changed communities across Afro-Eurasia. World historian Craig Benjamin says that virtually every community, "in this vast world zone were now connected into a single exchange network for the first time in history." Large cities thrived on extensive trade and merchants in these areas became wealthy. As trade brought new ideas and new people gained new wealth, social hierarchies and communities were forever changed.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader35Sharp black rocks: The Mesoamerican networkThe Afro-Eurasian trade system was huge, but other regional trade networks existed outside of it. In the Western Hemisphere, unknown to anyone living on the other half of the globe, long-distance trade networks flourished. The most extensive of these was in Mesoamerica—in what is today Mexico and Central America. Long-distance trade in the Americas faced significant barriers. Mesoamerica didn't have pack animals, and its rivers were not good for transportation. Though some sea-based trade took place in the Caribbean Sea and on the Pacific coast, American societies didn't develop sailing technology. Instead, huge canoes carried merchants long distances. Afro-Eurasian merchants could transport goods on a large scale thanks to pack animals and sailing ships, but in Mesoamerica, humans had to carry most loads. The development of long-distance trade networks in this region, beginning around 3,000 years ago is pretty impressive, considering it was mainly done on foot.Carrying goods on their backs, merchants moved between the large urban centers that emerged in Mesoamerica. Beginning around 1200 BCE, the Olmec and Zapotec peoples built major cities and trade routes in what is now southern Mexico. Around the same time, Maya cities expanded in the Yucatan Peninsula. By around 150 BCE, the great city of Teotihuacan emerged further north, on the plateau of central Mexico. Teotihuacan grew into the most important center of trade in Mesoamerica by 300 CE. At its height, Teotihuacan had over 100,000 inhabitants, making it one of the largest cities in the world and the largest city in the Americas.In Mesoamerica, many cities grew powerful because they were near valuable resources, such as obsidian and jade. Jade was used in religious rituals, making the cities that distributed it especially powerful. The same was true of obsidian. Mesoamerican societies did not use metal for weapons and tools; they used obsidian instead. Teotihuacan controlled two important obsidian mines. As long as it dominated the obsidian trade, Teotihuacan remained a regional powerhouse.Many other luxury materials circulated in the Mesoamerican network. Just like in Afro-Eurasia, many of these goods were produced in more than one place, and they mingled in large marketplaces across the region. But some regions were known for specific goods. Mayan merchants carried cacao, jade, salt, and quetzal feathers up and down the coast of the Yucatan Peninsula. Zapotec merchants on the Pacific coast were known for their cotton cloth and pottery. Further south, smaller societies in the highlands of what is now Guatemala traded jade and obsidian with their neighbors to the north. While the Mesoamerican networks were not as large as those in Afro-Eurasia, they also moved ideas. Many Mesoamerican societies shared religious and cultural symbols, which were adopted by new societies as they spread across trade routes. The impact of networks on communitiesLong-distance trade was difficult, slow, and expensive. So, the majority of the items traded along these networks were those that merchants could transport easily and make a large profit from—luxuries like jade, silk, spices, porcelain, and feathers as well as light-weight goods like paper, textiles, dried fruit, and nuts. Individual merchants typically traveled the same route back and forth, moving goods from one trade center to another, forming a chain of many merchants across trade routes, passing goods from one market to the next. Each merchant needed to make a profit. As a result, items became more expensive the farther they traveled. As people moved from one city to the next sharing goods and ideas, they forged new relationships between communities.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader36The rulers of cities and states wanted trade to thrive because these networks brought in the wealth and resources needed to maintain complex societies. Cities and empires were not cheap. So, rulers often built roads and used their armies to protect trade routes from bandits. In some places, states and merchants developed common systems of weights, measures, and coinage to make trade easier and more efficient. These early trade networks laid the foundations for the larger, more connected trade networks that you will see in later eras. Although methods of transport and exchange have changed—more trucks, fewer camels—trade still connects people, goods, and ideas along some of the same paths that developed thousands of years ago.SourcesBeaujard, Philippe. “From Three Possible Iron-Age World-Systems to a Single Afro-Eurasian World-System.” Journal of World History 21, no. 1 (2010): 1-43.Benjamin, Craig, ed. The Cambridge World History. Vol. 4. The Cambridge World History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015.Chase-Dunn, Christopher and Thomas D. Hall. Rise and Demise: Comparing World-Systems. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1997. Christian, David. “Silk Roads or Steppe Roads? The Silk Roads in World History.” Journal of World History 11, no. 1 (2000): 1-26. Schoff, Wilfred, ed. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. Charleston, SC: BiblioBazaar, 2014.Pool, Christopher. Olmec Archaeology and Early Mesoamerica. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007.Author BioNicole Magie is an assistant professor at Olivet College in Michigan. She is also a long-time member of the World History Association and the Midwest World History Association, and is an associate editor for World History Connected.Regional Trade Networks (970L)Nicole MagieWhere'd you get that shirt?We don't think much about trade today. For example, the shirt you're wearing probably traveled thousands of miles from a factory to you. But during Era 3, if you bought clothing made far away, you'd be the talk of the town. Merchants in ancient Afro-Eurasia and Mesoamerica went to great lengths to move trade goods. During Era 3, thousands of years ago, complex regional trade networks were emerging around the world.Why was there trade? In a word, cities. People wanted or needed things that they couldn't grow or make themselves. And so, ancient trade networks developed, oftento satisfy the wishes of the wealthy, but also to bring necessary food and tools for non-elites.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader37Roads, winds, and camels: The Afro-Eurasian networkAfro-Eurasia, just 11 letters and (sometimes) a hyphen, is a word that includes a lot of stuff! Three continents (Africa, Europe, and Asia) make up over half of the land on Earth and are home to most of the world's population. Long before airplanes and the Internet, vast webs of merchant networks linked these three continents together. This region was home tomany of world's oldest agricultural societies. Its geography and history helped trade grow. Over land, Afro-Eurasia had pack animals to carry goods over long distances, including horses and camels. By water, the Mediterranean Sea and Indian Ocean made maritime trade relatively easy. Many regions were known for certain goods. Silk originally came only from China and made its way across the vastness of Asia to the Mediterranean Sea. Indeed, silk was so important that we call the complex routes that stretched overland from Egypt to China the "Silk Road." But more than silk moved along these routes. India was known for cotton and spices like nutmeg and pepper. Ivory and gold were traded from the coast of East Africa, grain from Egypt, and iron from Nubia and the upper Nile. Greek and Roman wine and glassware were carried to the Chinese. Iron tools and the technologies to make them spread across Afro-Eurasian trade routes. Finally, in every region of this ancient system, enslaved people were also bought and sold.We have evidence that regional trade networks existed in Afro-Eurasia both at the beginning and end of Era3. Take a look at the picture below. This is the Standard of Ur. It was created in the Mesopotamian city of Ur (in present-day Iraq) around 2400 BCE but is made from materials not found in Mesopotamia. The blue rock is lapis lazuli from Bactria (in present-day Afghanistan). The figures are made of white shells from the Persian Gulf. And the red stone is marble from India. The trade networks that madethe Standard of Ur possible existed more than 4,400 years ago, and they continued to expand during Era 3. We also have written evidence from later in Era 3 that indicates trade networks extended from the Mediterranean Sea to the Pacific Ocean. A first-century CE Greek sailing guide describes how merchants should sail between ports in the Indian Ocean and the times of year to do so. It also gives some idea of the sorts of goods that were traded across these networks including glass, gold and silver coins, singing boys, cloth, pepper, and silk.Trade across land and sea changed communities across these continents. They connected almost all communities in Afro-Eurasia for the first time in history. Sharp black rocks: The Mesoamerican networkIn the Western Hemisphere, long-distance trade networks also flourished. The most extensive of these was in Mesoamerica—in what is today Mexico and Central America.Long-distance trade in the Americas faced significant barriers. Mesoamerica didn't have pack animals, and its rivers were not good for transportation. Some sea-based trade took place in the Caribbean Sea and along the Pacific coast. However, American societies didn't develop sailing technology. Instead, merchants used huge canoes. In Mesoamerica, humans had to carry most loads. The development of long-distance trade networks in this region, beginning around 3,000 years ago is pretty impressive, considering it was mainly done on foot.Carrying goods on their backs, merchants moved between the large urban centers that emerged in Mesoamerica. Beginning around 1200 BCE, the Olmec and Zapotec peoples built major cities and trade routes in what is now southern Mexico. By around 150 BCE, the great city of Teotihuacan emerged further north.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader38Many Mesoamerican cities grew powerful because they were near valuable resources, such as obsidian, a black volcanic rock. Their societies did not use metal for weapons and tools; they used obsidian instead. Teotihuacan controlled two important obsidian mines. As long as it dominated the obsidian trade, Teotihuacan remained a regional powerhouse.Many luxury materials circulated in the Mesoamerican network. Mayan merchants carried cacao, jade, and salt up and down the coast of the Yucatan Peninsula. Zapotec merchants on the Pacific coast were known for their cotton cloth and pottery. Further south, smaller societies traded jade and obsidian with their neighbors to the north. These trade networks also moved ideas. Many Mesoamerican societies shared religious and cultural symbols. Their practices were adopted elsewhere as traders shared them along trade routes.The impact of networks on communitiesLong-distance trade was difficult, slow, and expensive. So, traders mainly concentrated on goods that were easy to transport and promised a large profit. Trade often involved luxuries like jade, silk, spices, as well as easy-to-carry goods like paper and dried fruit. These merchants also forged new relationships between distant societies.The rulers of cities and states encouraged trade. Trade networks brought in the wealth and resources needed to maintain complex societies. Cities and empires were not cheap. So, rulers often built roads and used their armies to protect trade routes from bandits. The work of merchants during Era 3 laid the foundations for the larger, more connected trade networks that you will see in later eras.Regional Trade Networks (830L)Nicole MagieWhere'd you get that shirt?We don't think much about trade today. For example, the shirt you're wearing probably traveled thousands of miles from a factory to you. Long ago, though, if you owned goods from far away that likely meant you were rich and had high status. Merchants in ancient Afro-Eurasia and Mesoamerica went to great lengths to move trade goods. In Era 3, complex tradenetworks were emerging around the world.Why was there trade? In a word, cities. People wanted or needed things that they couldn't grow or make themselves. And so, ancient trade networks developed, often to satisfy the wishes of the wealthy, but also to bring necessary food and tools for non-elites.Roads, winds, and camels: The Afro-Eurasian networkAfro-Eurasia—this word covers a lot of ground. Three continents (Africa, Europe, and Asia) make up over half of the land on Earth. They are also home to most of the world's population. Long before airplanes and the Internet connected the world, vast webs of trade networks linked these three continents. This region was home to many of world's oldest agricultural societies. Its geography and history helped tradegrow. Afro-Eurasia had pack animals like horses and camels to carry goods over long distances. Ships made trade along sea routes relatively easy. Many regions were known for certain goods. Silk originally came only from China, for example. Its beauty and usefulness, though, made it a popular trade good. Traders carried it across the vastness of Asia to the
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader39Mediterranean Sea. Indeed, silk became so important that we call the complex routes that stretched from Egypt to China the "Silk Road." But merchants moved a lot more than silk along these and other routes. India was known for cotton and spices like nutmeg and pepper. Ivory and gold were traded from the coast of East Africa, and iron from the African kingdom of Nubia and the upper Nile. Greek and Roman wine and glass were transported to the Chinese. Finally, in every region of this ancient system, enslaved people were also bought and sold.We have evidence that regional trade networks existed in Afro-Eurasia both at the beginning and end of Era 3. Take a look at the picture below. This is the Standard of Ur. It was created in Ur (in present-day Iraq) around 2400 BCE. But it is made from materials notfound in that region. The blue rock is lapis lazuli from Bactria (in present-day Afghanistan). The figures are made of white shells from the Persian Gulf. And the red stone is marble from India. The trade networks that made the Standard of Ur possible existed more than 4,400 years ago. Trade across land and sea influenced and changed the cultures on these three continents. They connected almost all societies in Afro-Eurasia for the first time in history. Sharp black rocks: The Mesoamerican networkIn theWestern Hemisphere, long-distance trade networks also spread about 3,000 years ago. The most extensive of these was in Mesoamerica. Today, we know this region as Mexico and Central America. Long-distance trade in the Americas was difficult. This region has high mountains and rivers that were not good for transportation. Mesoamerica didn't have pack animals, and humans had to carry most loads. The development of long-distance trade networks is pretty impressive, considering it was mainly done on foot.Carrying goods on their backs, merchants moved between the large urban centers. Beginning around 1200 BCE, the Olmec and Zapotec peoples built major cities in what is now southern Mexico. Major trade routes developed between them. By around 150 BCE, the great city of Teotihuacan emerged further north. In Mesoamerica, many cities grew powerful because they were near valuable resources. Obsidian, a black volcanic rock, is an important example. Instead of metal, Mesoamerican societies used obsidian for weapons and tools. Teotihuacan controlled two important obsidian mines. Its control of this resource made the city a regional powerhouse.Many luxury materials circulated in the Mesoamerican network, as well. Mayan merchants carried cacao, jade, and salt up and downthe coast of the Yucatan Peninsula. Zapotec merchants on the Pacific coast were known for their cotton cloth and pottery. Traders also shared new ideas. These included religious and cultural practices. The impact of networks on communitiesLong-distance trade was difficult and expensive. Traders therefore mostly moved goods that were easy to transport and promised large profits. These merchants also helped establish relationships between societies.Rulers along these routes encouraged trade. It brought inwealth and resources needed to build complex societies. They often built roads. Their armies protected trade routes from bandits. The trade practices of Era 3 laid the foundations for the expanded trade networks you will see in later eras.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader40Regional Trade Networks (740L)Nicole MagieWhere'd you get that shirt?Look at the tag in your shirt. Where was it made? There is a good chance it came from a factory thousands of miles from your home. Today, global trade is common, but long ago it was a complex and challenging process. Still, trade networks spread rapidly in Era 3. Cities were the main reason trade grew during this period. People wanted or needed goods that they couldn't grow or make themselves. Ancient trade networks developed to meet this social and economic need.Roads, winds, and camels: The Afro-Eurasian networkAfro-Eurasia: this term covers a lot of ground. Three continents (Africa, Europe, and Asia) make up more than half of the land on Earth. They also are home to most of the world's population. Today, we have airplanes and the Internet that connect every corner of the planet. Four thousand years ago, though, slow-moving trade networks linked these three continents together. This region was home to some of the world's oldest agricultural societies. Its geography and history helped trade grow. Over land, Afro-Eurasia had pack animals like horses and camels. They could haul goods over long distances. Sailing ships used wind to move goods along coasts and across bodies of water.Regions sometimes were known for certain goods. For example, silk originally came only from China. Its beauty and usefulness, though, made it a popular trade good. Traders carried it across Asia to the Mediterranean Sea. Silk became so important that we call the routes between Egypt and China the "Silk Road." However, more than silk moved between the continents. India was known for cotton and spices like pepper. Ivory and gold were traded from the coast of East Africa. Greek and Roman wine and glass were transported to the Chinese. Enslaved people were also bought and sold as part of this trade system.Trade networks developed in Afro-Eurasia throughout Era 3. Take a look at the picture below. This object is known as the Standard of Ur. It was created in Ur (in present-day Iraq) around 2400 BCE. But it is made from materials not found in that region. The blue rock is lapis lazuli from Bactria (in present-day Afghanistan). The figures are made of white shells from the Persian Gulf. And the red stone is marble from India. The trade networks that made the Standard of Ur possible existed more than 4,400 years ago. Trade across land and sea touched most parts of Afro-Eurasia. Traders helped connect almost all societies there for the first time in history. Sharp black rocks: The Mesoamerican networkNorth and South America are located in the Western Hemisphere. There, long-distance trade networks also spread about 3,000 years ago. The biggest of these was in Mesoamerica. Today, we know this region as Mexico and Central America. Long-distance trade in the Americas was difficult. This region has high mountains and rivers that were not good for transportation. Mesoamerica didn't have pack animals, so humans had to carry most loads.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader41Carrying goods on their backs, merchants moved betweenthe large cities. Beginning around 1200 BCE, the Olmec and Zapotec peoples became regional powers. They built major cities in what is now southern Mexico. Trade routes developed between them. Later, the great city of Teotihuacan developed further north. In Mesoamerica, many cities grew powerful because they were near valuable resources. Obsidian was one such resource. Mesoamerican societies used this black volcanic rock instead of metal for weapons and tools. Teotihuacan controlled two important obsidian mines. Having this resource made the city very powerful.Luxury items were among the goods carried along Mesoamerica trade routes. Mayan merchants moved up and down the Yucatan Peninsula. They trade cacao, jade, and salt. Zapotec merchants on the Pacific coast were known for their cotton cloth and pottery. Traders also moved ideas. They sometimes introduced new religious and cultural practices to new places. The impact of networks on communitiesLong-distance trade took planning and effort. It was also expensive. Traders preferred to deal in goods that were easy to transport and promised large profits. Merchants also played significant roles in communication between societies.Rulers along these routes encouraged trade. It brought wealth and resources they needed. These rulers often built roads to make trade faster and easier. Their armies also protected merchants from bandits. As a result, trade networks rapidly expanded during Era 3.Regional Trade Networks (590L)Nicole MagieWhere'd you get that shirt?Look at the tag in your shirt. Where was it made? There is a good chance it came from another country. Today, global trade is common. Long ago, though, it was a big challenge with big rewards. Trade networks spread rapidly in Era 3. Traders across ancient Afro-Eurasia and Mesoamerica carried new goods and ideas to new places.Why did trade arise? Cities were the main reason. People wanted or needed things that they couldn't grow or make themselves. Ancient trade networks developed to fill those needs. Roads, winds, and camels: The Afro-Eurasian networkAfrica, Europe, and Asia are connected. Sometimes they are referred to as Afro-Eurasia. They make up more than half the land on Earth. They are also home to most people in the world. Today, the entire planet is connected. We have airplanes, ships, and trucks. We also have the Internet. Four thousand years ago, though, life was very different. But trade networks still existed across these three continents. Goods traveled from merchant to merchant across thousands of miles like a relay race.Afro-Eurasia’s networks were more active than other parts of the world. But why? The world's oldest farming societies developed in Afro-Eurasia. Its geography helped trade develop. Pack animals like horses and camels were available to carry goods on land. Sailing ships moved goods across the sea.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader42Some regions were known for certain goods. For example, silk originally came from China. Silk cloth was beautiful and useful. It became a valuable trade good. Traders carried it acrossAsia to the Mediterranean Sea, both by land and sea. These routes became known as the "Silk Road." These traders carried other goods, too. They brought cotton and spices from India. Gold was traded from the coast of East Africa. Wine and glass were transported from Greece to China. Enslaved people were also bought and sold along this trade network.Take a look at the picture below. This object is called the Standard of Ur. It was created around 2400 BCE in the city of Ur in what is now Iraq. But it is madefrom materials not found in that region. The blue rock comes from where Afghanistan is today. The figures made from white shells are from the Persian Gulf. The red stone is from India. Traders brought all these materials to Ur more than 4,400 years ago.Trade became a big deal in Afro-Eurasia in Era 3. It connected almost all societies there for the first time in history.Sharp black rocks: The Mesoamerican networkAbout 3,000 years ago, trade networks also developed in the western half of the world. The biggest of these networks was in Mesoamerica. Today, we know this region as Mexico and Central America.Long-distance trade in the Americas required great effort. The mountains in this region were high. The rivers were not good for transportation. People there did not have pack animals, like horses. They had to carry most goods on their own backs. But large trade networks existed.Like in Afro-Eurasia, traders mainly moved between big cities. Such cities often developed near valuable resources. Obsidian was one such resource. People in Mesoamerica used this black volcanic rock to make tools and weapons. Teotihuacan was near two big obsidian mines. This resource made the city wealthy and powerful.Traders in the region carried obsidian to where it wasn't as common. They also traded luxury goods. Mayan merchants moved up and down the Yucatan Peninsula. They traded cacao, jade, and salt. Zapotec merchants traded on the Pacific Coast. They were known for their cloth and pottery. Traders also transported ideas. Sometimes they introduced new cultural practices to new places.The impact of networks on communitiesRulers encouraged trade. It brought wealth and resources to their kingdoms. They built roads to make trade easier. Their armies protected merchants from bandits. As a result, trade networks rapidly grew in Era 3. They connected distant societies like never before.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader43Phoenicians: Masters of the SeaThe Phoenicians were master seafarers and traders who created a robust network across—and beyond—the MediterraneanSea, spreading technologies and ideas as they traveled.Phoenicians: Masters of the Sea (990L)Eman M. ElshaikhA seafaring peopleWhen we think about societies that had a massive impact on world history, we often forget about the "purple people." The Greeks gave this name to their seafaring trade partners, the Phoenicians, because of the rare purple dye they made from snail shells. And although the Phoenicians called themselves Can'ani(Canaanites), the name the Greeks gave them seems to have stuck.This is partly because historians mainly used Greek, Assyrian, and Latin sources along with Biblical references to learn about Phoenician society. The Phoenicians are perhaps best known for creating the first alphabet, which influenced writing systems everywhere. The Phoenicians used this alphabet to record their histories on papyrus. Unfortunately, almost all of their original writings were lost due to changing environmental conditions and multiple migrations and invasions. Still, historians and archaeologists are able to piece together a story about the Phoenicians.Historians think "Phoenicia" was never a unified society. Rather, it was a loose alliance of many city-states in modern-day Lebanon and Syria, including Tyre, Byblos, Beirut, and Sidon. Phoenician cities were also often controlled by other regional powers like the Egyptians and Assyrians.Though the Phoenician people didn't form a powerful empire, they were still incredibly influential. As master seafarers and traders, they created a robust network across and beyond the Mediterranean Sea. Phoenician ships carried technologies and ideas. As a result, Phoenician merchant communities absorbed and adapted foreign ideas. They formed critical connections between places, and drove cultural exchanges that would impact the world for millennia.Masters of the seaDriven to the coast, probably by their aggressive Assyrian neighbors, Phoenicians were not able to develop extensive farming. The environmental conditions inland were not favorable to large-scale agriculture. Living in a narrow coastal corridor that connected Asia to Africa, Phoenicians took advantage of their location to foster trade.Ancient writers describe the Phoenicians as expert sailors. They were first to venture from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic. By 1200 BCE, they were the dominant maritime power, and they continued to dominate until around 800 BCE. They builtcommercial colonies in Rhodes, Cyprus, Sicily, Sardinia, Spain, and north Africa. This gave them a network of ports in the Mediterranean. There's also evidence that they ventured far west to what is now Spain and beyond to the Atlantic coast of Africa. According to ancient Greek historian Herodotus, they traveled as far as South Africa!
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader44Their success was due to their ships. They were known for their speed and their ability to maneuver harsh seas. In fact, the ancient Egyptians called boats that could travel in the deep seas "Byblos boats," after the Phoenician city-state. Phoenician boats had room for many rowers and were built to sail long distances. One key ship technology was the cutwater, a sharp point that allowed ships to, well, cut through water. Phoenician ships were so advanced that both Persian and Assyrian royalty used Phoenician ships to sail. Phoenician sailors themselves were also skilled. They were some of the first people to use stars to navigate.Along with their famous purple dyes, Phoenician sailors traded textiles, wood, glass, metals, incense, papyrus1, and carved ivory. In fact, the word "Bible," from the Greek biblion, or book, came from the city of Byblos. It was a center of the trade of papyrus, a common writing material in the ancient world. They also traded wine, spices, salted fish and other food.The Phoenician political structure supported this trade. Foreign policy was determined by the dominant merchant class. They had an economic interest in maintaining sea lanes and making iteasy to get raw materials.The Phoenician communityTrade was at the center of the Phoenician economy, so merchants were at the center of the political structure and community. Merchant families made up the Phoenician senate, which determined the affairs of the city-state. This created a kind of merchant aristocracy (upper class). But unlike other aristocracies, this wasn't a closed group for those of noble birth.In general, there was a lot of social mobility in Phoenician communities. Phoenicians frequently married non-Phoenicians, and women had more freedom than many other women in the ancient world. There are few sources about Phoenician life in general and even less about women. But evidence suggests that women had a seat at the table—literally. Carvings and inscriptions show women at banquets and large gatherings alongside their male family members. They are also seen at religious events. There were many respected female deities (gods). The Phoenicians also had famous female leaders, including Dido, the Queen of Carthage.But hierarchies did exist. There were many enslaved people in Phoenician society. Many of these slaves were captured enemy soldiers. There were also reports that Phoenician sailors tricked people onto ships, pretending to show them goods, then capturing them as slaves. But since these reports came from Phoenicia's competitors, we should be aware of historical bias from these sources.Historians have a better understanding of Phoenician's belief system. This may be because it's one of the main things uniting the many Phoenician communities. Even the faraway colony of Carthage in modern-day Tunisia sent people back to Tyre annually to participate in a sacrifice at the temple of the god Melqart. There were multiple Phoenician deities. Likethe Greek gods, they were seen as powerful and unpredictable.Many of these religious beliefs were based on Mesopotamian traditions. Indeed, much of Phoenician culture was a kind of adaptation. Phoenician art borrowed a lot from Asian and Egyptian styles,probably partly because Phoenicians had customers in those regions. But although Phoenicians borrowed a lot, they also 1Ancient societies like the Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Greeks used papyrus or paper made from plant fibers for writing and record keeping.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader45innovated. In fact, the incredibly innovative Phoenician alphabet—which we'll come back to in a moment—may have begun as an experimentation based on Mesopotamian and Egyptian systems of writing.Phoenicians abroadPhoenicians were often under pressure by aggressive neighbors. Without enough land to feed their growing population, Phoenicians ventured abroad looking for land, resources, and trading partners. Some colonies, most notably Carthage, came to be more powerful than the original city-states. By 500 BCE, Carthage was one of the biggest cities in the world, with nearly half a million residents.These colonies played a critical role in the production and distribution of goods. They formed the basis of a lively trade network. Over two dozen ports and colonies were strung together, linking Mediterranean and Atlantic trade. Colonies were ethnically diverse. Phoenicians, indigenous people, and migrants from across the Mediterranean and sub-Saharan Africa lived in them. Though the Phoenicians built colonies, they didn't really build an empire, because they didn't directly rule over a large territory. However, they did have power over the colonized people. For example, in fertile Carthage, enslaved people and indigenous peasants farmed to provide a stable food supply. Carthage also had a powerful military. It was therefore the most empire-like of the Phoenician city-states.Many commercial colonies became vibrant city-states. In fact, some historians argue that these Phoenician urban centers became the model for the Greek city-state. But perhaps the most influential thing the Phoenicians introduced to Greece was their alphabet.A revolutionary scriptThe twenty-two characters of the Phoenician script revolutionized the written language. But where did it come from, and why was it so revolutionary? The Phoenician alphabet basically simplified writing. Both Egyptian and Mesopotamian early systems of writing used pictographs, which are pictures used as symbols. And there's evidence that Phoenicians were drawing on both of these systems of writing. But instead of using pictures to represent things, Phoenicians used symbols to represent sounds. This might sound pretty unexciting, but it was a huge leap. Once you learned the sounds symbolized by the letters, you could read without having to know the meanings of countless little pictures. This made literacy a lot easier, and writing a whole lot faster.Thissimplified alphabet made trade and accounting easier. As Phoenicians traveled across their networks, their system of writing moved with them. By 800 BCE, the Greeks had adopted it, adding vowels to make it even more efficient. It formed the basis of the Greek, Aramaic, and Etruscan systems of writing. By extension, it influenced Latin and dozens of other Indo-European languages. It influenced a big fraction of ancient writing systems, with the notable exception of East Asian writing.Where did the Phoenicians go?Historians debate what happened to this innovative, seafaring society. As empires like Persia expanded, Phoenicians strategically played these empires against each other and accepted their control when it was necessary. But over time, the original city-states lost their power. Eventually, the colonies were the only independent Phoenician societies left. As the Phoenicians traveled and traded, they spread cultural ideas, mixed with indigenous populations, and came up with some of the most innovative technologies in world history.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader46SourcesAubet, Maria Eugenia. The Phoenicians and the West: Politics, Colonies, and Trade. Second Edition. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001.Bulliet, Richard W. The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History. Boston, MA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, 2011.Cole, Joshua. Western Civilizations: Their History & Their Culture. Edited by Carol Symes. Eighteenth edition. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2014.“Did the Phoenicians Even Exist?” Haaretz, July 28, 2016. https://www.haaretz.com/archaeology/did-the-phoenicians-even-exist-1.5417395.Markoe, Glenn E. Peoples of the Past: Phoenicians. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2000. Roberts, J. M. The Penguin History of the World. Edited by Odd Arne. Westad. 6th ed., 2014.Author BioEman M. Elshaikh holds an MA in social sciences from and is pursuing a PhD at the University of Chicago, where she also teaches writing. She is a writer and researcher, and has taught K-12 and undergraduates in the US and in the Middle East. Eman was previously a World History Fellow at Khan Academy, where she worked closely with the College Board to develop curriculum for AP world history.Phoenicians: Masters of the Sea (920L)Eman M. ElshaikhA seafaring peopleThe Phoenicians were an ancient people from modern-day Lebanon and Syria who traveled throughout the Mediterranean world. They called themselves Can'ani(Canaanites). The Greeks called them Phoenicians, which means "purple people”. This was because the Phoenicians were famed for a rare purple dye they made from snail shells. The name the Greeks gave them seems to have stuck,partly because historians mainly used Greek, Assyrian, and Latin sources along with Biblical references to learn about Phoenician society.The Phoenicians are perhaps best known for creating the first alphabet, which influenced writing systems everywhere. Unfortunately, almost all of their original writings were lost. Historians and archaeologists have had to piece together the story of the Phoenicians from other civilizations' sources.Historians think "Phoenicia" was never a unified society. Rather, it was a loose alliance of many city-states that included Tyre, Byblos, Beirut, and Sidon. Phoenician cities were also often controlled by other regional powers like the Egyptians and Assyrians.Though the Phoenician people didn't form a powerful empire, they were still influential. They were master seafarers andtraders who formed networks across the Mediterranean Sea. Phoenician ships carried technologies and ideas and Phoenician merchant communities absorbed and adapted foreign ideas. They formed critical connections between places that would impact the world for thousands of years.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader47Masters of the seaAncient writers describe the Phoenicians as expert sailors. They were first to venture from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic. They were the dominant maritime power between 1200 BCE and 800 BCE. They built commercial colonies in Spain, North Africa and many Mediterranean islands.Their success was due to their ships, which were known for their speed and their ability to move through harsh seas. Phoenician boats had room for many rowers and were built to sail long distances. Phoenician sailors themselves were also skilled. They were some of the first people to use stars to navigate.Along with their famous purple dyes, Phoenician sailors traded textiles, wood, glass and metals. They also traded papyrus2, a common writing material in the ancient world. In fact, the word "Bible" came from the city of Byblos.The Phoenician communityTrade was at the center of the Phoenician economy, so merchants were very important people in Phoenician society. They made up the Phoenician senate, which determined the affairs of the city-state.There was a lot of social mobility in Phoenician communities. Women had more freedom than many other women in the ancient world. Women participated in banquets alongside men. They attended religious events. The culture had many female goddesses. The Phoenicians also had famous female leaders, including Dido, the queen of Carthage.But social hierarchies did exist. There were many enslaved people in Phoenician society, many of who were captured enemysoldiers. There were reports in the records of Phoenicia’s competitors that they tricked people onto their ships to enslave them. But we should be aware of historical bias from these sources. Historians have a better understanding of the Phoenicians' belief system. There were multiple Phoenician gods. People from faraway Phoenician colonies would gather for religious events, like a sacrifice at a temple. Many of these religious beliefs were based on traditions from Mesopotamia, an ancient region in modern-day Iraq.Phoenicians abroadThe Phoenicians traveled abroad in search of land and resources to feed their growing population. Some of their colonies became larger and more powerful than the original city-states. Carthage, located in modern-day Tunisia, became one of the biggest cities in the world. It had nearly half a million residents in 500 BCE.These colonies formed important trade networks. The colonies had a lot of ethnic diversity. Phoenicians, native people and migrants from acrossthe Mediterranean and sub-Saharan Africa lived in them.The Phoenicians didn't really build an empire because they didn't directly rule over their large territory. They did have power over the colonized people, though. In Carthage, enslaved people farmed to provide food for the Phoenicians.2Ancient societies like the Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Greeks used papyrus or paper made from plant fibers for writing and record keeping.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader48A revolutionary scriptThe Phoenician alphabet revolutionized the written language. The Phoenicians were influenced by the writing systems used in Egypt and Mesopotamia. These systems used pictographs, which are pictures used as symbols. The Phoenicians used symbols to represent sounds.The Phoenician system greatly simplified writing. The Egyptian system had a thousand different characters. The Phoenicians created a script with only twenty-two characters. Once you learned the sounds symbolized by the letters, you could read without having to know the meanings of countless little pictures. This made literacy a lot easier, and writing a whole lot faster.The Phoenicians' system of writing spread across their trade networks. By 800 BCE, the Greeks had adopted it. It therefore influenced Latin and dozens of other languages in Europe, the Middle East and India.Where did the Phoenicians go?Historians debate what happened to Phoenician society. The original Phoenician city-states lost power to growing civilizations like the Persian Empire. Eventually, the colonies were the only independent Phoenician societies left.The Phoenicians had a massive impact on world history. As they traveled and traded, they spread cultural ideas, mixed with local populations, and created innovative technologies.Phoenicians: Masters of the Sea (800L)Eman M. ElshaikhA seafaring peopleThe Phoenicians were an ancient people who traveled to many areas around the Mediterranean Sea. They called themselves Can'ani(Canaanites). The Greeks called them Phoenicians, which means "purple people”. This was because the Phoenicians were famed for a rare purple dye they made from snail shells. The name the Greeks gave them seems to have stuck, partly because historians mainly used Greek, Assyrian, and Latin sources along with Biblical references to learn about Phoenician society.The Phoenicians are perhaps best known for creating the first alphabet. The Phoenicians used this alphabet to record their histories on papyrus3. Unfortunately, almost all of their original writings were lost. Historians have had to learn about the Phoenicians from reading what other civilizations said about them."Phoenicia" was not an empire or a unified society. It was a collection of city-states in modern-day Lebanon and Syria that included Tyre, Byblos, Beirut, and Sidon. Phoenician cities were also often controlled by other regional powers like the Egyptians and Assyrians.The Phoenician people were master seafarers and traders. Theyformed networks across the Mediterranean Sea. They spread technologies and ideas. They formed important connections between the Middle East, Europe and North Africa which would impact the world for thousands of years.3Ancient societies like the Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Greeks used papyrus or paper made from plant fibers for writing and record keeping.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader49Masters of the seaThe Phoenicians were expert sailors. They were first to travel from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic. They dominated the seas between 1200 BCE and 800 BCE. They built trading colonies in Spain, North Africa and many Mediterranean islands.Their success was due to their advanced ships. They were fast and could move through rough seas. Phoenician boats had room for many rowers and were built to sail long distances. Phoenician sailors were some of the first people to use stars to navigate.Phoenician sailors traded many things, including their famous purple dyes. They traded textiles, wood, glass, metals and food. They also traded papyrus, a common writing material in the ancient world.The Phoenician communityMerchants were very important people in Phoenician society. They made up the Phoenician senate. People were able to move up in society and become leaders.Women had more freedom than many other women in the ancient world. The Phoenicians also had respected female gods and famous female leaders, including Dido, the queen of Carthage.There were many enslaved people in Phoenician society. Many of these enslaved people were captured enemy soldiers.The Phoenicians' belief system included multiple gods. People from different Phoenician colonies would gather for religious events. Many of their beliefs were based on traditions from Mesopotamia. This was an ancient region in modern-day Iraq.Phoenicians abroadThe Phoenicians traveled in search of land and resources to feed their people. Some of their colonies became larger and more powerful than the original city-states. Carthage was a Phoenician colony located in modern-day Tunisia. It became one of the biggest cities in the world, with half a million residents in 500 BCE.Phoenician colonies formed important tradenetworks. The colonies had people from different ethnic backgrounds. Phoenicians, native people and migrants from Europe and Africa lived in them.The Phoenicians didn't really build an empire because they didn't directly rule over their large territory. They did have power over the colonized people, though. In Carthage, enslaved people farmed to provide food for the Phoenicians.A revolutionary scriptThe Phoenician alphabet transformed written language. There were earlier writing systems in Egypt and Mesopotamia. These systems used pictographs, which are pictures used as symbols. The Egyptian system had a thousand different characters.The Phoenicians adapted these systems to create their own. They used symbols to represent sounds. Their alphabet had twenty-two characters. They didn't have to learn the meanings of countless little pictures. This made reading and writing a lot simpler and easier to learn.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader50The Phoenicians' system of writing spread through the Mediterranean. By 800 BCE, the Greeks had adoptedit. It would help shape Latin and dozens of other languages in Europe, the Middle East and India.Where did the Phoenicians go?Historians question what happened to Phoenician society. Large empires like Persia took power away from the original Phoeniciancity-states. Eventually, the colonies were the only independent Phoenician societies left.The Phoenicians had a large effect on world history. As they traveled and traded, they mixed with local populations. They spread cultural ideas and created new technologies.Phoenicians: Masters of the Sea (740L)Eman M. ElshaikhA seafaring peopleThe Phoenicians were an ancient people from modern-day Lebanon and Syria. They called themselves Can'ani(Canaanites). The Greeks named them Phoenicians. The name the Greeks gave them seems to have stuck, partly because historians mainly used Greek, Assyrian, and Latin sources along with Biblical references to learn about Phoenician society.The Phoenicians created the first alphabet. The Phoenicians used this alphabet to record their histories on papyrus.4Unfortunately, almost all of their writings were lost. Historians have had to learn about the Phoenicians from reading what civilizations said about them."Phoenicia" was not an empire or a unified society. It was a collection of city-states that included Tyre, Byblos, Beirut, and Sidon. Phoenician cities were also often controlled by other regional powers like the Egyptians and Assyrians.The Phoenicians were master sailors and traders. They built colonies across the Mediterranean Sea. They spread technologies and ideas. They formed connections between the Middle East, Europe and North Africa. They would impact the world for thousands of years.Masters of the seaThe Phoenicians did not live on land that was suitable to large-scale farming. Their location, however, allowed the Phoenicians to become expert sailors. They were first to travel from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic. They controlled the seas between 1200 BCE and 800 BCE. They built trading colonies in Spain, North Africa and many Mediterranean islands.Their success was due to their advanced ships. They were fast and could move through rough seas. Phoenician ships were so advanced that both Persian and Assyrian royalty used their ships. Phoenician sailors were some of the first people to use stars to navigate.4Ancient societies like the Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Greeks used papyrus or paper made from plant fibers for writing and record keeping.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader51Phoenician sailors traded many things, including their famous purple dyes. They traded textiles, wood, glass, metals, and food. They also traded papyrus, a common writing material in the ancient world.The Phoenician communityMerchants were very important people in Phoenician society. People were able to move up in society and become leaders.Women had more freedom than other women in the ancient world. The Phoenicians also had famous female leaders. One was Dido, the queen of Carthage.There were many enslaved people in Phoenician society. Many of these enslaved people were enemy soldiers who were captured.The Phoenicians had multiple gods. People from different colonies would gather for religious events. Many of their beliefs were based on traditions from Mesopotamia. This was an ancient society in modern-day Iraq.Phoenicians abroadThe Phoenicians traveled to find land and resources to feed their people. There were enslaved people in the colonies. They farmed to provide food for the Phoenicians.Some of their colonies became larger than the city-states. Carthage was a Phoenician colony located in modern-day Tunisia. It became one of the biggest cities in the world.Phoenician colonies formed important trade networks. The colonies had people from different ethnic backgrounds. The Phoenicians lived alongside local people and migrants from Europe and Africa.A revolutionary scriptThe Phoenicians created the first alphabet. It changed written language forever. There were earlier writing systems in Egypt and Mesopotamia. These systems used pictographs, which are pictures used as symbols. The Egyptian system had a thousand different characters.The Phoenicians were influenced by these systems. They created their own and used symbols to represent sounds. Their alphabet had twenty-two characters. They didn't have to learn the meanings of countless little pictures. This made reading and writing a lot simpler and easier to learn.The Phoenicians' system of writing spread through the Mediterranean. By 800 BCE, the Greeks had copied it. The Phoenician alphabet would shape many writing systems used in Europe and Western Asia.Where did the Phoenicians go?Historians question what happened to Phoenician society. The city-states lost power to large empires like Persia. Eventually, the colonies were the only independent Phoenician societies left.The Phoenicians had a large effect on world history. As they traveled and traded, they influenced many civilizations. They spread cultural ideas and created new technologies.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader52Phoenicians: Masters of the Sea (650L)Eman M. ElshaikhA seafaring peopleThe Phoenicians were an ancient people. They called themselves Can'ani(Canaanites). The Greeks named them Phoenicians. The name the Greeks gave them stuck. This is partly because historians mainly used Greek, Assyrian, and Latin sources along with Biblical references to learn about Phoenician society.The Phoenicians were expert sailors who traveled across the Mediterranean Sea. They formed many colonies around the Mediterranean, including in Spain and North Africa."Phoenicia" was not an empire or a unified society. It was a collection of city-states in modern-day Lebanon and Syria that included Tyre, Byblos, Beirut, and Sidon. Phoenician cities were also often controlled by other regional powers like the Egyptians and Assyrians.The Phoenician people had a large effect on the world. They spread technologies and ideas. They are most famous for creating the first alphabet. The Phoenicians used this alphabet to record their histories on papyrus.5Unfortunately, almost all of their writings were lost. Historians have had to learn about the Phoenicians from reading what civilizations said about them.Masters of the seaThe Phoenicians did not have land that was good for large-scale farming. Their location on the Mediterranean Sea did allow them to become expert sailors. They were the first to sail from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic. They controlled the seas between 1200 and 800 BCE. The Phoenicians built trading colonies in Spain, North Africa, and on many islands in the Mediterranean. Their success was because they had very advanced ships. They were fast and could sail through rough water. Phoenician sailors traded many things, including their famous purple dyes. They traded textiles, wood, glass, metals, and food. They also traded papyrus, a common writing material in the ancient world.The Phoenician communityMerchants were very important people in Phoenician society. They made up the Phoenician senate. People were able to move up in society and become leaders.Women had more freedom than in other ancient societies. The Phoenicians had famous female leaders. One was Dido, the queen of Carthage.The Phoenicians had multiple gods, including many respected female gods. People from different colonies would gather for religious events. Many of their beliefs were based on traditions from Mesopotamia. This was an ancient society located where modern-day Iraq is.5Ancient societies like the Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Greeks used papyrus or paper made from plant fibers. They used them for writing and record keeping.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader53Phoenicians abroadThe Phoenicians used their colonies to bring in food. Some colonies became larger than the city-states. Carthage was a colony in modern-day Tunisia. It became one of the biggest cities in the world.The colonies had people from different ethnic groups. Phoenicians mixed with the local people. There were also migrants from around the Mediterranean and Africa.The Phoenicians didn't really have an empire. They didn't directly rule over their territories. They did have power over the colonized people. They had enslaved people in the colonies who farmed to provide food for the Phoenicians.A revolutionary scriptThe Phoenicians created the first alphabet. They were inspired by other ancient writing systems. The Egyptians used a thousand different pictures as symbols. The Phoenicians used symbols to mean sounds.The Phoenician system made writing a lot simpler. Their alphabet had twenty-two characters. It was easier to learn than a thousand little pictures. It made reading and writing much easier. It was copied by the Greeks. Many writing systems can be traced back to Phoenician system.Where did the Phoenicians go?Historians question what happened to Phoenician society. The city-states lost power to empires like Persia. Phoenician colonies lasted longer than the city-states.The Phoenicians had a big impact on world history. They mixed with many civilizations as they traveled. They spread new ideas and technologies.The Iron AgeBetween 1500 BCE and 500 BCE a new technology swept through Afro-Eurasia, reshaping warfare, trade, the environment, and human social relationships. And it’s why there are so many of us now.The Iron Age (1110L)Bennett SherryIron: The origin storyWord reaches your village slowly. The king's army has been defeated, and the invaders are headed your way. They have weapons that seem many times more deadly than your own. Their soldiers are armed and armored with a strange new technology. Even worse, they outnumber your people. Their advanced technology allows them to sustain larger populations and reshape the world around them. As they swarm along the rivers of Mesopotamia, they leave the burnt remains of forests behind them. But these are not supernatural invaders. They're humans, and they have learned to harness the most common metal on Earth: iron.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader54Early human history is usually studied in three periods: the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages. Historians periodize early human history in this way because tools made of hard materials like metal and stone are often the only remnants from these ancient societies. It varies by region, but this periodization is most accurate when we are talking about Afro-Eurasia.The Iron Age lasted roughly from 1500 BCE to 500 BCE. We're used to iron now, but iron-making technology was a major innovation, and it took thousands of years for people to figure it out. Smelting6bronze wasn't exactly easy either, so let's compare. To make bronze, you combine tin and copper, melting them at about 950 degrees Celsius. Early humans could do this in a pottery furnace. Iron needs a furnace that can handle 1,538 degrees Celsius—way too hot for a pottery furnace. A big advantage with iron was that you only need one metal, which is much easier to get than copper or tin.The timing of the first iron-smelting technologies is significant. Several major states in the Eastern Mediterranean began to collapse around 1200 BCE, the Late Bronze Age. Egyptian, Greek, and Hittite cultures all faced a crisis. Several different factors caused this collapse, including earthquakes, droughts, and invasion by a mysterious group known as "Sea Peoples." The introduction of iron technology, combined with this collapse, rapidly changed the ancient world into something that began to look a lot less ancient. In the wake of ecological catastrophe and invasion, iron reshaped regional power dynamics, trade networks, natural environments, and human social orders from the Mediterranean to China.Swords into ploughshares: Iron reshapes power dynamicsWhen we talk about the Iron Age, we usually picture swords, but that's not really what made iron technology so powerful. Sure, iron weapons are stronger than bronze, but the real advantage is that iron is easier to make. It all comes down to the chemical composition of the Earth. Iron is the most abundant metal on our planet, so it's easy to get your hands on.The copper and tin needed to make bronze are hard to find, and not always found in the same area. States using bronze technology to outfit their armies were dependent on trade to obtain one or both metals. When war or a large-scale disaster like the Late Bronze Age collapse disrupted trade, they couldn't make weapons and tools. Meanwhile, societies that solved the high-temperature furnace problem were able to grow much stronger as the Iron Age began. Suddenly they could make more tools and weapons faster and cheaper.More ore: Iron reshapes trade networksAncient Eurasia was interconnected and interdependent during the Bronze and Iron Ages. Wars and trade connected the Eastern Mediterranean to Western India and the lands in between. Armies and merchants brought bronze and iron technologies along these trade networks over several centuries. Communities in world zones outside these networks, such as the Americas and the Pacific Ocean, were left out of the Iron Age transformations. These zones would not use iron technology until the sixteenth century CE.The earliest evidence of extensive iron smelting comes from the Hittites, who ruled an empire inAnatolia from around 1500 BCE to 1177 BCE.Iron smelting technology gradually spread from Anatolia and Mesopotamia across Eurasia. By around 1000 BCE, Indian farmers needed more rice paddies to feed the growing number of people in new cities. So they 6Smelting is the process of extracting metal from ore by melting it. Ore is a kind of rock that has a lot of metal in it.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader55usediron tools to clear the forests around the subcontinent's great rivers to make room for rice. By 700 BCE, people in China adopted iron smelting technology, innovating iron production by developing larger, even hotter furnaces capable of melting iron to a more liquid state. That meant it could be poured into molds, a method known as cast iron. This type of metal was too brittle for weapons, but it was excellent for making cheap iron plows, tools, pots, and art. An abundance of cast iron tools allowed Chinese farmers to increase and intensify agricultural production. More food led to rapid population increases in China, just as iron technology had done in Mesopotamia and India.There is evidence to suggest that iron-smelting technology developed independentlyin sub-Saharan Africa around the same time that the Hittites began working with the metal. In Central Africa, several communities were already connected by the Bantu7language. But it was iron that allowed them to clear African forests and spread their agricultural societies across a region larger than the United States.Turning trees into swords: Iron reshapes the environmentHumans have always impacted the environment, but Iron Age societies reshaped the world around them in unprecedented ways. Iron smelting furnaces needed lots of fuel. The most abundant and hottest-burning fuel available to ancient societies was wood.Once people started using iron tools, they became dependent on increased productivity to sustain growing populations. That meant more crops needed to be planted. So, they cut down more trees to, 1) make larger fields and, 2) use the wood to fuel their furnaces. More wood meant they could smelt more iron and feed even more people. Even more people meant they needed more iron tools, which required—you guessed it—more wood. Armed with new iron axes, farmers set out to harvest more trees and clear more land. Soon, forests started to disappear. For most of human history, populations increased only gradually. The Bronze and Iron Ages kicked off apopulation boom for ancient human communities.Iron forges social relationshipsAs iron helped populations grow, empires extended their reach over larger territories. By 800 BCE, the Assyrian Empire dominated Mesopotamia with an army of 200,000 soldiers. Sustaining such a large army was only possible with an efficient government and iron technology. Now that empires ruled people in faraway places, new social hierarchies developed as rulers sought methods to hold their diverse empires together.Even after the Iron Age, iron smelting technologies continued to reshape relationships between people. The huge empires of Rome and Han China depended on iron tools as their agricultural efforts spread rapidly to new areas. Once again, more food meant that empires could support more people, now in densely populated cities. To manage their large empires, rulers built new roads and infrastructure8.As for the lower classes, iron technology meant that even peasant farmers could afford tools. According to historian DanielHeadrick, "for most people, it was iron, not bronze, that brought an end to the Stone Age."7Bantu refers to a group of languages spoken in Central and Southern Africa.8Infrastructurerefers to the physical and organizational structures that allow a society to function. It can refer to physical structures like bridges, roads, and water supply, but it can also refer to organizational structures like the education system.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader56Gender mattered when it came to iron work. The production of iron was done by men in most regions, with some variations. In places where women dominated farming, as in large parts of Central Africa, it was probably women who drove the adoption of iron. Even here, however, most metal-workers were men. As iron became more important to communities, men often held more power in those communities.One metal, many pathsThe journey to iron technology took different routes. In Bantu Africa, the route included termite mounds and complex gender relationships. Historians Catherine Fourshey, Rhonda Gonzales, and Christine Saidi explain how the massive termite mounds of Central Africa helped inspire iron kilns. Bantu iron smelters could repurpose a termite hill as the foundation for a new kiln and then use clay from the same mound to build furnace walls.When it came to metal working, Bantu society did not strictly separate "men's work" from "women's work." It was far more complex. Evidence from the Bantu language confirms that Bantu speakers made connections linking termite mounds, iron smelting, and motherhood. The iron kilns were associated with the idea of giving birth, thoughit was men who worked them. In this way "the male production of iron" was linked to matrilineal history through "the metaphor of birth or female reproduction." Matrilineal societies trace ancestry through mothers. This is just one example of the variety of relationships linking humans to iron working, their environment, and each other.SourcesCline, Eric. 1177 B.C.: The Year Civilization Collapsed. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2014.Fourshey, Cymone, Rhonda M. Gonzales, and Christine Saidi. Bantu Africa: 3500 BCE to the Present. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018.Headrick, Daniel R. Technology: A World History. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.Marston, John M. “Agricultural Strategies and Political Economy in Ancient Anatolia.” American Journal of Archaeology 116, no. 3 (July 2012): 377-403.Stremlin, Boris. “The Iron Age World-System.” History Compass 6, no. 3 (April 2008).Author BioBennett Sherry holds a PhD in history from the University of Pittsburgh and has undergraduate teaching experience in world history, human rights, and the Middle East at the University of Pittsburgh and the University of Maine at Augusta. Additionally, he is a research associate at Pitt's World History Center. Bennett writes about refugees and international organizations in the twentieth century.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader57The Iron Age (1060L)Bennett SherryIron: The origin storyWord reaches your village slowly. Invaders are coming and they are armed with strange, deadly new weapons. Even worse, they outnumber your people. Their advanced technology allows them to maintain larger populations and reshape the world around them. These are not alien invaders. They're humans, and they have learned to harness the most common metal on Earth: iron.Early human history isusually studied in three periods: the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages. Historians organize early human history in this way because tools made of hard materials like metal and stone are often the only artifacts from these ancient societies. It varies by region, but this organization into three time periods is most accurate when we are talking about Afro-Eurasia. Afro-Eurasia refers to the combined continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa.The Iron Age lasted roughly from 1500 BCE to 500 BCE. We're used to iron now, but iron-making technology was a major innovation then, and it took thousands of years for people to figure it out. To make iron you need a furnace that can handle 1,538 degrees Celsius (2,800 degrees Fahrenheit). Before the Iron Age, humans were creating bronze in pottery furnaces. The timing of the first iron-smelting9technologies is significant. Several major states like Greece and Egypt began to collapse around 1200 BCE, the Late Bronze Age. Natural disasters and foreign invasions were some of the reasons for this collapse. The introduction of iron technology, combined with this collapse, rapidly changed the ancient world. Iron reshaped regional power dynamics, trade networks, natural environments, and human social orders all over Eurasia.Swords into ploughshares: Iron reshapes power dynamicsWe usually picture swords when we think of the Iron Age, but that's not what made iron technology so powerful. Iron weapons are stronger than bronze, but the real advantage is that iron is easier to find and easier to make. The copper and tin needed to make bronze are hard to find, and some states depended on trade to get copper or tin to make bronze weapons for their armies. When war or disaster disrupted trade, they couldn't make weapons and tools. Meanwhile, societies that solved the high-temperature furnace problem were able to grow much stronger as the Iron Age began. Suddenly they could make more tools and weapons faster and cheaper.More ore: Iron reshapes trade networksDifferent parts of Eurasia were connected during the Bronze and Iron Ages. Armies and merchants brought bronze and iron technologies along trade networks over several centuries. Other parts of the world such as the Americas were left out of the Iron Age transformations. They did not use iron for another 3,ooo years, in the sixteenth century CE.9Smelting is the process of removing metal from ore by melting it. Ore is a kind of rock that has a lot of metal in it.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader58The earliest evidence of extensive iron smelting comes from the Hittites. From 1500 BCE to 1177 BCE, the Hittites ruled an empire in Anatolia, which is in present-day Turkey.By around 1000 BCE, people all over Eurasia were using iron tools. In India and China, iron was used to make farming tools that allowed farmers to grow more food. This led to massive population increases in those areas.There is evidence to suggest that iron-smelting technologywas in Africa and Anatolia around the same time. Central African communities used iron to clear forests and spread their agricultural societies across a region larger than the United States.Turning trees into swords: Iron reshapes the environmentHumans have always impacted the environment, but Iron Age societies reshaped the world around them in major ways. Iron smelting furnaces needed lots of wood, which was the most abundant and hottest-burning fuel at the time.Iron Age societies had to plant more crops to feed their growing populations. So, they cut down more trees to make larger fields and produce more wood to fuel their furnaces. More wood meant they could smelt more iron and feed even more people. Even more people meant they needed more iron tools, which required more wood. Soon, forests started disappearing. Populations increased slowly for most of human history, but the Bronze and Iron Ages kicked off a population boom for ancient human communities.Iron forges social relationshipsAs iron helpedpopulations grow, empires expanded their territories. These empires needed an efficient government and iron technology to support their large armies. Rulers created a new social order so that they could keep their diverse empires together. Even after theIron Age, iron smelting technologies continued to reshape relationships between people. The huge empires of Rome and Han China depended on iron tools to increase farmland and grow more food. This food helped support the states' growing cities. To manage their large empires, rulers built new roads and other infrastructure10.Iron was relatively cheap to make, which meant even poor farmers could afford iron tools.Gender mattered when it came to iron work. The production of iron was done by men in most regions, even in places where women were using iron. As iron became more important to communities, men often held more power in those communities.10Infrastructure refers to the physical and organizational structures that allow a society to function. It can refer to physical structures like bridges, roads, and water supply. It can also refer to organizational structures like the education system.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader59One metal, many pathsThe journey to iron technology took different routes. Historians Catherine Fourshey, Rhonda Gonzales and Christine Saidi explain the route of the Bantu11people in Central Africa. The Bantu used termite mounds to make furnaces for melting iron. When it came to metal working, Bantu society did not strictly separate "men's work" from "women'swork." It was far more complex. Evidence from the Bantu language confirms that Bantu speakers made connections linking termite mounds, iron smelting, and motherhood. The iron furnaces were associated with the idea of women giving birth, which was linked to matrilineal history. Matrilineal societies trace ancestry through mothers. This is just one example of the variety of relationships linking humans to iron working, their environment, and each other.The Iron Age (980L)Bennett SherryIron: The origin storySlowly, word reaches your village. Invaders are headed your way and they are armed with deadlier weapons than yours. Even worse, they outnumber your people. Their advanced technology allows them to maintain larger populations and reshape the world around them. These are not alien invaders. They're humans, and they have learned to harness the most common metal on Earth: iron.Early human history is usually studied in three periods: the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages. Historians organize early human history in this way because metal and stone tools are often the only artifacts we have from those times. This organization is most accurate when we are talking about Afro-Eurasia, an area that includes the continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa.The Iron Age lasted roughly 1,000 years from 1500 BCE to 500 BCE. We're used to iron now, but iron-making was an important new technology back then. To make iron, you needed a furnace that could handle 1,538 degrees Celsius (2,800 degrees Fahrenheit). It took thousands of years before humans learned how to make a furnace that hot. Before the Iron Age, humans could only get their furnaces to about 950 degrees celsius (1,740 Fahrenheit). The timing of the first iron-smelting12technologies is significant. Toward the end of the Bronze Age in 1200 BCE, several major ancient states like Egypt and Greece began to fall. Different factors caused this failure, including natural disasters and foreign invasions. The introduction of iron at this time quickly changed the ancient world. Iron changed politics, trade, nature, and society all over Eurasia.Swords into ploughshares: Iron reshapes power dynamicsIron is stronger than bronze. However, the real advantage of iron is that it is easier to find and easier to make than bronze.11Bantu refers to a group of languages spoken in Central and Southern Africa.12Smelting is the process of removing metal from ore by melting it. Ore is a kind of rock that has a lot of metal in it.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader60Some states depended on trade to get the materials they needed to make bronze weapons. If trade was interrupted, those societies could not make weapons or tools. Meanwhile, societies who began making iron grew stronger because they could make weapons faster and cheaper.More ore: Iron reshapes trade networksDifferent parts of Eurasia were connected during the Bronze and Iron Ages. For several centuries, armies and merchants brought bronze and iron technologies along trade networks. Other parts of the world such as the Americas were left out of the Iron Age transformations. They did not use iron until about 3,000 years later in the sixteenth century CE.The earliest evidence of iron smelting comes from the Hittites. From 1500 BCE to 1177 BCE, the Hittites ruled an empire in Anatolia, which is in present-day Turkey.By around 1000 BCE, people all over Eurasia were using iron tools. In India and China, iron was used to make farming tools that helped farmers grow more food. This led to huge population increases in those areas.There is evidence that iron developed in Africa around the same time it developed in Anatolia. Central African communities used iron to clear forests and expand their agricultural societies.Turning trees into swords: Iron reshapes the environmentIron Age societies changed the environment in major ways. Iron smelting furnaces needed lots of wood, which was the most common fuel at the time.Iron Age societies had to plant more crops to feed their growing populations. So, they cut down more trees tomake larger fields and produce more wood to fuel their furnaces. Soon, forests started to disappear. Populations increased slowly for most of human history, but human populations grew quickly during the Bronze and Iron Ages.Iron forges social relationshipsAs iron helped populations grow, empires expanded their territories. These empires needed government and iron technology to support their large armies. Empires began ruling people in faraway places. This created a new social order, as rulers tried to manage all the people of their huge empires. Even after the Iron Age, iron smelting technologies continued to change relationships between people. The empires of Rome and Han China used iron tools to grow more food. This food helped feed their growing cities. To manage their large empires, rulers built new roads and other infrastructure13.Iron was cheap to make, so even poor farmers could afford iron tools.Gender mattered when it came to iron work. The production of iron was done by men in most regions, even in places where women were using iron. As iron became more important to communities, men often held more power in those communities.13Infrastructure refers to the physical and organizational structures that allow a society to function. It can refer to physical structures like bridges, roads, and water supply. It can also refer to organizational structures like the education system.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader61One metal, many pathsThe journey to iron technology took different routes. Historians Catherine Fourshey, Rhonda Gonzales, and Christine Saidi explain the route of the Bantu14people in Central Africa. The Bantu used termite mounds to make furnaces for melting iron.When it came to metal working, Bantu society did not strictly separate "men's work" from "women's work." It was far more complex. Evidence from the Bantu language confirms that Bantu speakers made connections linking termite mounds, iron smelting, and motherhood. The iron furnaces were connected with the idea of women giving birth, which was linked to matrilineal history. Matrilineal societies trace ancestry through mothers. This is just one example of the ways in which humans were connected to iron working, the environment, and each other.The Iron Age (900L)Bennett SherryIron: The origin storySlowly, your village hears about what is happening. Invaders are headed your way and they are armed with deadlier weapons than yours. Even worse, they outnumber your people. Their advanced technology allows them to have larger populations and reshape the world around them. These are not alien invaders. They're humans, and they have learned to use the most common metal on Earth: iron.Early human history is usually studied in three periods: the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages. Historians organize early human history in this way because metal and stone tools are often the only artifacts we have from those times. This organization of time periods makes the most sense for Afro-Eurasia. Afro-Eurasia is an area that includes Europe, Asia, and Africa.The Iron Age lasted 1,000 years, from 1500 BCE to 500 BCE. We're used to iron now. Back then, iron-making was an important new technology. To make iron, you needed a furnace that could handle 1,538 degrees Celsius (2,800 degrees Fahrenheit). It took humans thousands of years to make furnaces that hot.The timing of the first iron-smelting15technologies is important. Toward the end of the Bronze Age in 1200 BCE, several major ancient states like Egypt and Greece began to fall. There were a few different reasons for this, including natural disasters and foreign invasions. When iron appeared at this time, it quickly changed the ancient world. Iron changed politics, trade, nature, and society all over Eurasia.Swords into ploughshares: Iron reshapes power dynamicsIron is stronger than bronze, but the real advantage of iron is that it is easier to find. Iron is the most common metal on earth. It is much easier to make than bronze, too.Some states depended on trade to get materials for making bronze. If trade was interrupted, those societies could not make bronze weapons or tools. Societies who began making iron grew stronger. They could make weapons faster and cheaper.14Bantu refers to a group of languages spoken in Central and Southern Africa.15Smelting is the process of removing metal from ore by melting it. Ore is a kind of rock that has a lot of metal in it.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader62More ore: Iron reshapes trade networksDuring the Bronze and Iron Ages, traders and armies travelled across Eurasia. They brought bronze and iron technologies along Eurasian trade networks. Other parts of the world such as the Americas were left out of the Iron Age transformations. These areas did not use iron for another 3,000 years.The earliest evidence of iron smelting comes from the Hittites. From 1500 BCE to 1177 BCE, the Hittites ruled an empire in Anatolia, or present-day Turkey.About 500 years later, people all over Eurasia were using iron tools. In India and China, iron was used to make farming tools that helped farmers grow more food. This led to huge population increases in those areas.There is evidence that iron developed in Africa around the same time it developed in Anatolia. Central African communities used iron to expand their societies.Turning trees into swords: Iron reshapes the environmentIron Age societies changed the environment in major ways. Iron Age societies had to plant more crops to feed their growing populations. So, they cut down trees to make larger fields and to make more wood to fuel the iron furnaces. Soon, forests started to disappear. Populations increased slowly for most of human history. During the Bronze and Iron Ages, human populations grew quickly. Iron forges social relationshipsIron helped populations grow, and empires soon expanded their territories. These empires needed government and iron technology to support their large armies. Rulers looked for ways to manage all the people of their huge empires. This created a new social order. Even after the Iron Age, rulers built new roads and other infrastructure16to manage their empires.Gender mattered when it came to iron work. Men made iron in most regions, even in places where women were using iron. As iron became more important to communities, men often held more power in those communities.One metal, many pathsThe journey to iron technology took different routes. Historians Catherine Fourshey, Rhonda Gonzales, and Christine Saidi explain the route of the Bantu17people in Central Africa. The Bantu used termite mounds for melting iron.Bantu society did not strictly consider metalworking to be "men's work" or "women's work." It was far more complicated. The Bantu language confirms that for Bantu speakers, termite mounds, iron smelting, and motherhood were related. The iron furnaces were connected with the idea of women giving birth. Birth was 16Infrastructure refers to the physical and organizational structures that allow a society to function. It can refer to physical structures like bridges, roads, and water supply. It can also refer to organizational structures like the education system.17Bantu refersto a group of languages spoken in Central and Southern Africa.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader63linked to matrilineal history. Matrilineal societies trace ancestry through mothers. This is just one example of the ways humans were connected to iron working, the environment, and each other.The Iron Age (770L)Bennett SherryIron: The origin storySlowly, your village learns what is happening. Invaders are headed your way. They are armed with deadlier weapons than yours. Even worse, they outnumber your people. Their advancedtechnology allows them to have larger populations. It also allows them to reshape the world around them. These are not alien invaders. They're humans who have learned to use iron, the most common metal on earth. Early human history is usually studied in three periods: the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages. Historians give the periods these names because metal and stone tools are often the only artifacts we have from those times. Organizing early human history into these three periods is most accurate for the landmass known as Afro-Eurasia. Afro-Eurasia is the area including Europe, Asia, and Africa.The Iron Age lasted 1,000 years. It started around 1500 BCE and ended around 500 BCE. We're used to iron now. Back then, iron-making was an important new technology. To make iron, you needed a furnace. That furnace must be able to handle 1,538 degrees Celsius (2,800 degrees Fahrenheit). It took thousands of years for humans to learn how to make a furnace that hot.The timing of the first iron-smelting18technologies is important. Toward the end of the Bronze Age in 1200 BCE, several major ancient states like Egypt and Greece began to fall. Natural disasters and war were two important reasons for this. At the same time, iron appeared. Iron changed politics, trade, nature, and society all over Eurasia.Swords into ploughshares: Iron reshapes power dynamicsIron is stronger than bronze. Another advantage of iron is that it is easier to find. It is much easier to make than bronze, too.Some states depended on trade to get materials for making bronze. If trade was interrupted, those societies could not make bronze weapons or tools. Societies who began making iron grew stronger. They could make weapons faster and cheaper.More ore: Iron reshapes trade networksDuring the Bronze and Iron Ages, traders and armies travelled Eurasia. They brought bronze and iron technologies along Eurasian trade networks. Other parts of the world were left out of the Iron Age. These areas did not use iron for another 3,000 years.Scientists believe the Hittites were the first to melt iron. They started around 1500 BCE. The Hittites ruled an empire in Anatolia. Anatolia is part of present-day Turkey.18Smelting is the process of removing metal from ore by melting it. Ore is a kind of rock with a lot of metal in it.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader64About 500 years later, people all over Eurasia were using iron tools. In India and China, iron was used to make farming tools. This helped farmers grow more food. As a result, populations grew in those areas.There is evidence that Africa and Anatolia discovered iron at the same time. Central African communities used iron to expand their societies.Turning trees into swords: Iron reshapes the environmentIron Age societies changed the environment in major ways. Iron Age societies planted more crops to feed their growing populations. They began to need larger fields. Trees were cut to make space for fields. Wood from the trees was used as fuel in iron furnaces. Forests began to disappear. Populations grew slowly for most of human history. During the Bronze and Iron Ages, human populations grew quickly. Iron forges social relationshipsIron helped populations grow. Soon, empires expanded their territories. These empires needed government and iron technology to support their large armies. Rulers looked for ways to manage all the people in their empires. This created a new social order. After the Iron Age, rulers built roads and other infrastructure19to manage their empires.Gender mattered in iron work. Men made iron in most regions, even in places where women were using iron. Iron became more important to communities. Men often held more power in those communities.One metal, many pathsThe journey to iron technology took different routes. Catherine Fourshey, Rhonda Gonzales, and Christine Saidi are historians. They explain the route of the Bantu20people in Central Africa. The Bantu used termite mounds for melting iron. The shape and clay of the mounds worked as furnaces.Bantu society did not consider metalworking to be "men's work" or "women's work." It was far more complicated. The Bantu language show that for Bantu speakers, termite mounds, iron smelting, and motherhood were related. The iron furnaces were connected with the idea of women giving birth. Birth was linked to matrilineal history. Matrilineal societies trace ancestry through mothers. The Bantu are one example of how humans were connected to iron working, the environment, and each other.19Infrastructure refers to the structures that allow a society to function.It can refer to physical structures like bridges, roads, and water supply. It can also refer to organizational structures like the education system.20Bantu refers to a group of languages spoken in Central and Southern Africa.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader65The Hittites and Ancient AnatoliaMost of modern day Turkey used to be called Anatolia. The Hittites who formed an empire there were pretty high tech for 1600-1180 BCE, and were able to create a formidable economy and military.The Hittites and Ancient Anatolia (1170L)Khan Academy Staff, revised by Eman M. ElshaikhIntroductionThe Hittites were an ancient group of Indo-Europeans21who formed an empire around 1600 BCE at Hattusa in Anatolia (the western peninsula of Asia, which is mostly modern-day Turkey). The Hittite Empire peaked in the mid-1300s BCE, when it spread across Asia Minor, into the northern Levant22and Upper Mesopotamia (northern Middle East). Like many Indo-Europeans, the Hittites could travel long distances and migrate to other lands, thanks to a type of transportation that was pretty high tech at the time: domesticated horses. The spread of technologies like the wheel and wagon, which were also used in ancient Mesopotamia and other early societies in the region, boosted the success of both pastoralists (animal farmers) and agrarian states.After about 1180 BCE, the empire ended and splintered into several independent city-states, some of which survived until the eighth century BCE. These were Neo-Hittites, and of course neomeans "new."CultureThe Hittite language was part of the Indo-European family of related languages. Today these languages are widely spoken in the Americas, Europe, and Western and Southern Asia.Although their society thrived during the Bronze Age, starting around 3000 BCE, the Hittites were pioneers of the Iron Age. Quite the trend-setters, they began manufacturing iron artifacts around 1400 BCE. Tools and weapons using iron were a lot more efficient than those made of bronze, so iron became the hot new thing. Literally, as it turns out, since iron melts at a higher temperature than copper or tin. There are a couple of theories about how the Hittites developed this technology. Some scholars believe they had been experimenting with metalworking for years, and eventually discovered a smelting process hot enough to melt iron. Or maybe they learned some of this technology from communities in the Zagros Mountains in western Iran. However they figured it out, the Hittites now had a gold mine—in iron production, that is. As they profited from the high demand of iron, they established new trade networks.After 1180 BCE, a new community known as the Sea Peoples caused turmoil in the Levant as they raided these areas. The Sea Peoples were of an unknown origin, but they had enough ships to raid Mediterranean and Egyptian cities. The raids caused the Hittite kingdom to scatter into several independent Neo-Hittite city-21Indo-Europeans are people speaking any of the family of languages spread across Europe, the Middle East, and northern India.22The Levant refers to the eastern Mediterranean, including what are now Israel, Lebanon, part of Syria, and western Jordan.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader66states. What we know of Hittite history and society comes mostly from cuneiform texts found in the area of their former kingdom. We have also learned about them from diplomatic and commercial mail found in archives in Egypt and the Middle East. Thecuneiform23writing suggests that the Hittites had some connection with the city-states of Mesopotamia, perhaps due to established networks with Mesopotamia.The Hittite stateNow for some politics. The head of the Hittite state was the king, followed by the heir-apparent, usually the king's son. But there were some officials who had independent authority over various branches of the government. That means the king didn't really control all aspects of the kingdom. For example, there was a Chief of the Royal Bodyguards, a Chief of the Scribes24, and even a Chief of the Wine Stewards.Not much is known about the actual day-to-day life and culture of the Hittites. The written documents that survived are mostly about kings and their campaigns. It is known that the Hittites wrote using Akkadian script (cuneiform) but in their own Indo-European language. They used cylinder seals to sign documents and mark property, just as people did throughout Mesopotamia. That suggests a link or network between Hittite and Mesopotamian cultures. Then again, it's possible the Hittites learned those Mesopotamian customs from other groups they had conquered, like the Hattians. Some scholars have suggested this connection because the details of Hittite life and culture seem to be slight variations on those of the Hattian people—even the name Hittite is derived from the word Hattie. But we don't know the exact nature of the relationship between the Hittites and the Mesopotamians because so few primary sources survived.Some of the writings and artifacts we have from the Hittites tell us about their belief system, which was similar to the Hatti's. Storm gods were important in the Hittite pantheon (a pantheon is the group of gods in a polytheistic religion). The storm god known as Tarhuntwas called the Conqueror, the King of Kummiya, King of Heaven, and Lord of the land of Hatti. He was the god of battle and victory, especially against foreign powers. This suggests the Hittites cared a lot about military might.Military technologyOne military engagement the Hittites are famous for is the Battle of Kadesh in 1274 BCE. They faced the army of the Egyptian pharaoh Ramesses II. This battle is especially important because both sides claimed victory, and that led to the first known peace treaty in the history of the world, in 1258 BCE.The Hittites had been pushing into Egyptian territory for centuries before Pharaoh Ramesses II resolved to drive the Hittites from his borders in 1274 BCE. He hoped to gain an advantage by capturing of the city of Kadesh, a center of commerce, which the Hittites held. Ramesses marched from Egypt leading over 20,000 soldiers in four divisions to fight against the troops that were being led by the king of the Hittites, named Muwatalli.The Egyptian and Hittite armies were pretty evenly matched, which must be why the fight was too close to call, and both sides claimed victory. The Egyptian chariots were faster because they only had two people aboard them. But since the Hittite chariots had an extra person, they couldthrow more spears. The combination of chariots and iron tools, which were stronger than bronze ones, meant that the Egyptian and 23Cuneiform—literally meaning "wedge shape"—is a writing system invented by the Sumerians. The symbols are wedge-shaped and usually carved into clay tablets.24Scribes created and maintained written records for the government.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader67Hittite military technology was some of the most sophisticated of its time. Each side had a military powerful enough to send troops to war as they fought to maintain control over their respective empires.From Ramesses' point of view, he had defeated his enemy in battle, so he claimed victory for Egypt. But Muwatalli noticed he still had control over Kadesh, which was what Ramesses was after, so he claimed victory as well. Muwatalli’s brother, and successor who participated in the battle, was the one who arranged a truce with Ramesses II. The Treaty of Kadesh—the first peace treaty—written about 15 years after the Battle of Kadesh, was an important document because it represented how rulers negotiated to maintain control of their empires.SourcesBoundless World History. “Ancient Societies on the Mediterranean: The Hittites.” Lumen Learning. Retrieved from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/ancient-societies-on-the-mediterranean/Bryce, Trevor. “The ‘Eternal Treaty’ from the Hittite perspective.” BMSAES 6 (2006): 1-11. https://research.britishmuseum.org/research/publications/online_journals/bmsaes/issue_6/bryce.aspxThe Hittites and Ancient Anatolia (1090L)Khan Academy Staff, revised by Eman M. ElshaikhIntroductionAround 1600 BCE, the ancient Indo-European25group known as the Hittitesformed an empire at Hattusa in Anatolia (the western peninsula of Asia, which is mostly modern-day Turkey). The Hittite Empire peaked in the mid-1300s BCE, when it spread across Asia Minor, into the northern Levant26and Upper Mesopotamia (northern Middle East). Like many Indo-Europeans, the Hittites could travel long distances thanks to atype of transportation that was pretty high-tech at the time: domesticated horses. The spread of technologies like the wheel and wagon, which were also used in ancient Mesopotamia and other early societies in the region, boosted the success of both pastoralists (animal farmers) and agrarian (farming) states.After about 1180 BCE, the empire ended and splintered into several independent city-states, some of which survived until the eighth century BCE. These were Neo-Hittites, and of course neomeans "new."CultureThe Hittite language was part of the Indo-European family of related languages. Today these languages are widely spoken in the Americas, Europe, and Western and Southern Asia.Although their society thrived during the Bronze Age, starting around 3000 BCE, the Hittites were trend-setters of the Iron Age. They began manufacturing iron artifacts around 1400 BCE. Tools and weapons using 25Indo-Europeans are people speaking any of the family of languages spread across Europe, the Middle East, and northern India.26The Levant refers to the eastern Mediterranean, including what are now Israel, Lebanon, part of Syria, and western Jordan.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader68iron were much more efficient than those made of bronze, so iron became the hot new thing. Literally, as it turns out,since iron melts at a higher temperature than copper or tin. Some scholars believe they had been experimenting with metalworking for years, and eventually discovered a smelting process hot enough to melt iron. Or maybe they learned some of this technologyfrom communities in the Zagros Mountains in western Iran. However they figured it out, the Hittites now had a gold mine—in iron production, that is. As they profited from the high demand of iron, they established new trade networks.After 1180 BCE, a community of unknown origin known as the Sea Peoples caused unrest in the Levant. They had enough ships to raid Mediterranean and Egyptian cities. The raids caused the Hittite kingdom to scatter into several independent Neo-Hittite city-states. What we know ofHittite history and society comes mostly from cuneiform27texts found in the area of their former kingdom. We have also learned about them from diplomatic and commercial mail found in Egypt and the Middle East. The cuneiform writing suggests that the Hittites had some connection with the city-states of Mesopotamia. Perhaps this was due to established networks with Mesopotamia.The Hittite stateNow for some politics. The head of the Hittite state was the king, followed by the heir-apparent, usually the king's son. But some other officials did have independent authority over various branches of the government. That means the king didn't really control all aspects of the kingdom. For example, there was a Chief of the Royal Bodyguards, a Chief of the Scribes28, and even a Chief of the Wine Stewards.Not much is known about the actual day-to-day life and culture of the Hittites. The written documents that survived are mostly about kings and their campaigns. It is known that the Hittites wrote using Akkadian script (cuneiform) but in their own Indo-European language. They used cylinder seals to sign documents and mark property, just as people did throughout Mesopotamia. That suggests a link or network between Hittite and Mesopotamian cultures. Then again, it's possible the Hittites learned those Mesopotamian customs from other groups they had conquered, like the Hattians. Some scholars have suggested this connection because the details of Hittite life and culture seem to be slight variations on those of the Hattianpeople. Even the name "Hittite" is derived from the word Hattie. But we don't know the exact nature of the relationship between the Hittites and the Mesopotamians because so few primary sources survived.Some of the writings and artifacts we have from theHittites tell us about their belief system, which was similar to the Hatti's. Storm gods were important in the Hittite pantheon—that is, the group of gods in a religion that worships many. The storm god known as Tarhunt was called the Conqueror, the Kingof Kummiya, King of Heaven, and Lord of the land of Hatti. He was the god of battle and victory, especially against foreign powers. This suggests the Hittites cared much about military might.Military technologyOne military engagement the Hittites are famous for is the Battle of Kadesh in 1274 BCE. They faced the army of the Egyptian pharaoh Ramesses II. This battle is especially important because both sides claimed victory, and that led to the first known peace treaty in the history of theworld, in 1258 BCE.27Cuneiform—literally meaning "wedge shape"—is a writing system invented by the Sumerians. The symbols are wedge-shaped and usually carved into clay tablets. 28Scribes created and maintained written records for the government.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader69The Hittites had been pushing into Egyptian territory for centuries before Pharaoh Ramesses II resolved to drive the Hittites from his borders in 1274 BCE. He hoped to gain an advantage by capturing of the city of Kadesh, a center of commerce, which the Hittites held. Ramesses marched from Egypt leading over 20,000 soldiers to fight. Their opponents' troops were being led by the king of the Hittites, named Muwatalli.The Egyptian and Hittite armies were pretty evenly matched. In fact, the fight was too close to call, and both sides claimed victory. The Egyptian chariots were faster because they only had two people aboard them. But since the Hittite chariots had an extra person, they could throw more spears. The combination of chariots and iron tools, which were stronger than bronze ones, meant that the Egyptian and Hittite military technology was some of the most sophisticated of its time. Each side had a military powerful enough to send troops to war as they fought to maintain control over their respective empires.From Ramesses' point of view, he had defeated his enemy in battle, so he claimed victory for Egypt. But Muwatalli noticed he still had control over Kadesh, which was what Ramesses was after, so he claimed victory as well. Muwatalli’s brother, and successor who participated in the battle, was the one who arranged a truce with Ramesses II. The Treaty of Kadesh—the first peace treaty—written about 15 years after the Battle of Kadesh, was an important document because it representedhow rulers negotiated to maintain control of their empires.The Hittites and Ancient Anatolia (950L)Khan Academy Staff, revised by Eman M. ElshaikhIntroductionAnatolia, the western peninsula of Asia, is today mostly the country we know as Turkey.Around 1600 BCE, the ancient Indo-European29group known as the Hittitesformed an empire there at Hattusa. The Hittite Empire peaked in the mid-1300s BCE, when it spread across Asia Minor, into the northern Levant30and Upper Mesopotamia (northern Middle East). Like many Indo-Europeans, the Hittites could travel long distances thanks to a type of transportation that was pretty high-tech at the time: domesticated horses. The spread of technologies like the wheel and wagon, which were also used in ancient Mesopotamia and other early societies nearby, boosted the success of both pastoralist (animal farming) and agrarian (plant farming) states.After about 1180 BCE, the empire ended and splintered into several independentcity-states. Some of these survived until the eighth century BCE. These were Neo-Hittites, and of course neomeans "new."CultureThe Hittite language was part of the Indo-European family of related languages. Today these languages are widely spoken in the Americas, Europe, and Western and Southern Asia.The Hittite society thrived during the Bronze Age, starting around 3000 BCE. However, they were trend-setters of the Iron Age. They began manufacturing iron artifacts around 1400 BCE. Tools and weapons using 29Indo-Europeans are people speaking any of the family of languages spread across Europe, the Middle East, and northern India.30The Levant refers to the eastern Mediterranean, including what are now Israel, Lebanon, part of Syria, and western Jordan.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader70iron were much more efficient than bronze ones, so iron became the hot new thing. Literally hot, too, since iron melts at a higher temperature than copper or tin. Some scholars believe they had been experimenting with metalworking for years. Eventually they discovered a smelting process hot enough to melt iron. Or maybe they learned some of this technology from communities in the Zagros Mountains in western Iran. However they figured it out, the Hittites now profited from the high demand of iron, and they established new trade networks.After 1180 BCE, a new community of unknown origin known as the Sea Peoples caused unrest in the Levant. They had enough ships to raid Mediterranean and Egyptian cities. The raids caused the Hittite kingdom to scatter into several independent Neo-Hittite city-states. What we know of Hittite history and society comes mostly from cuneiform31texts found in the area of their former kingdom. We have also learned about them from diplomatic and commercial mail found in Egypt and the Middle East. The cuneiform writing suggests that the Hittites had some connection with the city-states of Mesopotamia. Perhaps this was due to established networks with Mesopotamia.The Hittite stateNow for some politics. The head of the Hittite state was the king. He was followed by the heir-apparent, usually the king's son. But there were some officials who had independent authority over various branches of the government. That means the king didn't really control all aspects of the kingdom. For example, there was a Chief of the Royal Bodyguards, a Chief of the Scribes32, and even a Chief of the Wine Stewards.Not much is known about the actual day-to-day life and culture of the Hittites. The written documents that survived are mostly about kings and their campaigns. It is known that the Hittites wrote using Akkadian script (cuneiform) but in their own Indo-European language. They used cylinder seals to sign documents and mark property, just as people did throughout Mesopotamia. That suggests a link or network between Hittite and Mesopotamian cultures. Then again, it's possible the Hittites learned those Mesopotamian customs from other groups they had conquered, like the Hattians. Some scholars have suggested this connection because the details of Hittite culture seem only slightly different from the Hattian people. Even the name "Hittite" comes from the word Hattie. But we don't know the exact nature of the relationship between the Hittites and the Mesopotamians. Few primary sources survived.Some of thewritings and artifacts we have from the Hittites tell us about their belief system. It was similar to the Hatti's: Storm gods were important in the Hittite pantheon—that is, the group of gods in a religion that worships many. The storm god known as Tarhunt was called the Conqueror, the King of Kummiya, King of Heaven, and Lord of the land of Hatti. He was the god of battle and victory, especially against foreign powers. This suggests the Hittites cared much about military might.Military technologyOne military engagement the Hittites are famous for is the Battle of Kadesh in 1274 BCE. They faced the army of the Egyptian pharaoh Ramesses II. This battle is especially important because both sides claimed victory. That led to the first known peace treaty in the history of the world, in 1258 BCE.31Cuneiform—literally meaning "wedge shape"—is a writing system invented by the Sumerians. The symbols are wedge-shaped and usually carved into clay tablets. 32Scribes created and maintained written records for the government.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader71The Hittites had been pushing into Egyptian territory for centuries. Then Pharaoh Ramesses II resolved to drive the Hittites from his borders in 1274 BCE. He hoped to gain an advantage by capturing of the city of Kadesh, a center of commerce, which the Hittites held. Ramesses marched from Egypt leading over 20,000 soldiers in four divisions to fight. Their opponents' troops were being led by the king of the Hittites, named Muwatalli.The Egyptian and Hittite armies werepretty evenly matched. In fact, the fight was too close to call. Both sides claimed victory. The Egyptian chariots were faster because they only had two people aboard them. But since the Hittite chariots had an extra person, they could throw more spears. The combination of chariots and iron tools, which were stronger than bronze ones, meant that the Egyptian and Hittite military technology was some of the most sophisticated of its time. Each side had a military powerful enough to send troops to war. They used them to fight to keep control over their respective empires.From Ramesses' point of view, he had defeated his enemy in battle. So, he claimed victory for Egypt. But Muwatalli noticed he still had control over Kadesh, which was what Ramesses was after,so he claimed victory as well. Muwatalli’s brother, and successor who participated in the battle, was the one who arranged a truce with Ramesses II. The Treaty of Kadesh—the first peace treaty—written about 15 years after the Battle of Kadesh, was an important document. It represented how rulers negotiated to maintain control of their empires.The Hittites and Ancient Anatolia (850L)Khan Academy Staff, revised by Eman M. ElshaikhIntroductionMost of the country we today know as Turkey was once Anatolia. It's an area on the western peninsula of Asia. Around 1600 BCE, the ancient Indo-European33group known as the Hittites formed an empire there at Hattusa. The Hittite Empire peaked in the mid-1300s BCE. It spread across Asia Minor, into the northern Levant34and Upper Mesopotamia (northern Middle East). Like many Indo-Europeans, the Hittites could travel long distances. They had transportation that was pretty high-tech for the time: domesticated horses. The spread of technologies like the wheel and wagon boosted the success of both pastoralist (animal farming) and agrarian (plant farming) states. Such new technologies were also used in ancient Mesopotamia and other early societies nearby. After about 1180 BCE, the empire ended and splintered into several independent city-states. Some of these survived until the eighth century BCE. These were Neo-Hittites. Neomeans "new."CultureThe Hittite language was part of the Indo-European family of related languages. Today these languages are widely spoken in the Americas, Europe, and Western and Southern Asia.33Indo-Europeans are people speaking any of the family of languages spread across Europe, the Middle East, and northern India.34The Levant refers to the eastern Mediterranean, including what are now Israel, Lebanon, part of Syria, and western Jordan.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader72The Hittite society thrived during the Bronze Age, starting around 3000 BCE. However, they were pioneers of the Iron Age. They began manufacturing iron artifacts around 1400 BCE. Tools and weapons using iron were much more efficient than bronze ones. Soon, iron became the hot new thing, literally: iron melts at a higher temperature than copper or tin. Some scholars believe the Hittites had been experimenting with metalworking for years. Eventually theydiscovered a smelting process hot enough to melt iron. Or maybe they learned some of this technology from communities in the Zagros Mountains in western Iran. However they figured it out, the Hittites profited greatly from the high demand of iron. Soon they established new trade networks.After 1180 BCE, a new community known as the Sea Peoples caused unrest in the Levant. The Sea Peoples were of an unknown origin, but they had enough ships to raid Mediterranean and Egyptian cities. The raids caused the Hittite kingdom to scatter into several independent Neo-Hittite city-states. What we know of Hittite history comes mostly from cuneiform35texts found in the area of their former kingdom. We have also learned about them from mail found in Egypt and the Middle East. The cuneiform writing suggests that the Hittites had some connection with the city-states of Mesopotamia. Perhaps this was due to established networks with Mesopotamia.The Hittite stateThe head of the Hittite state was the king. He was followed by the heir-apparent, usually the king's son. But there were some officials who had independent authority over various branches of the government. That means the king didn't really control all aspects of the kingdom. For example, there was a Chief of the Royal Bodyguards, a Chief of the Scribes36, and even a Chief of the Wine Stewards.Not much is known about the everyday Hittite way of life. The written documents that survived are mostly about kings and their campaigns. It is known that the Hittites wrote using Akkadian script (cuneiform) but in their own Indo-European language. They used cylinder seals to sign documents and mark property. People throughout Mesopotamia did that too. It's possible the Hittites learned those Mesopotamian customs from other groups they had conquered, like the Hattians. Some scholars have suggested this connection because the details of Hittite life and culture seem to be only slightly different from those of the Hattian people. Even the name "Hittite" comes from the word Hattie.But we don't know the exact nature of the relationship between the Hittites and the Mesopotamians. Few primary sources survived.Some of the writings and artifacts we have from the Hittites tell us about their belief system. It was similar to the Hatti's.Storm gods were important to them. The storm god known as Tarhunt was called the Conqueror, the King of Kummiya, King of Heaven, and Lord of the land of Hatti. He was the god of battle and victory, especially against foreign powers. This suggests the Hittites cared very much about military might.Military technologyOne military engagement the Hittites are famous for is the Battle of Kadesh in 1274 BCE. They faced the army of the Egyptian pharaoh Ramesses II. This battle is especially important because both sides claimed victory. That led to the first known peace treaty in the history of the world, in 1258 BCE.35Cuneiform—literally meaning "wedge shape"—is a writing system invented by the Sumerians. The symbols are wedge-shaped and usually carved into clay tablets. 36Scribes created and maintained written records for the government.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader73The Hittites had been pushing into Egyptian land for centuries. Then Pharaoh Ramesses II resolved to drive the Hittites from his borders in 1274 BCE. He hoped to gain an advantage by capturing of the city of Kadesh, a center of trade, which the Hittites held. Ramesses marched from Egypt leading over 20,000 soldiers to fight. Their opponents' troops were being led by the Hittite king, named Muwatalli.The Egyptian and Hittite armies were pretty evenly matched. In fact, the fight was too close to call. Both sides claimed victory. The Egyptian chariots were faster because they only had two people aboard them. But since the Hittite chariots had an extra person, they could throw more spears. The combination of chariots and strong iron tools meant that the Egyptian and Hittite military technology was some of the most advanced of its time. Each side had a military powerful enough to send troops to war. They used them to fight to keep control over their empires.From Ramesses' point of view, he had defeated his enemy in battle. So, he claimed victory for Egypt. But Muwatalli noticed he still had control over Kadesh, which was what Ramesses was after, so he claimed victory as well. Muwatalli’s brother, and successor who participated in the battle, was the one who arranged a truce with Ramesses II. The Treaty of Kadesh—the first peace treaty—written about 15 years after the Battle of Kadesh, was an important document. It represented how rulers negotiated to maintain control of their empires.The Hittites and Ancient Anatolia (720L)Khan Academy Staff, revised by Eman M. ElshaikhIntroductionThe Hittites were an Indo-European group37. They once ruled over much of what we know today as the country Turkey. Around 1600 BCE they formed an empire at Hattusa, in the area called Anatolia. It sits on the western peninsula of Asia. The Hittite Empire peaked in the mid-1300s BCE. It spread across Asia Minor, into the northern Levant38and Upper Mesopotamia, in the northern Middle East. Like many Indo-Europeans, the Hittites could travel long distances to other lands. They had trained horses, a pretty new technology at the time. Other technologies like the wheel and wagon werespreading too. These boosted the success of both pastoralist (animal farming) and agrarian (plant farming) states. Such new technologies were also used in ancient Mesopotamia and other early societies in the region.After about 1180 BCE, the empire ended.It split into several independent city-states. Some of these survived until the eighth century BCE. These were Neo-Hittites. Neomeans "new."CultureThe Hittite language was part of the Indo-European family of related languages. Today these languages arewidely spoken in the Americas, Europe, and Western and Southern Asia.The Hittite society thrived during the Bronze Age. It began around 3000 BCE. However, they were pioneers of the Iron Age. Around 1400 BCE, they began manufacturing iron artifacts. Toolsand weapons using iron 37Indo-Europeans are people speaking any of the family of languages spread across Europe, the Middle East, and northern India.38The Levant refers to the eastern Mediterranean, including what are now Israel, Lebanon, part of Syria, and western Jordan.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader74were much more effective than bronze ones. Iron also melts at a higher temperature than copper or tin. Soon, iron became the hot new thing. Some scholars believe the Hittites had been experimenting with metalworking for years. However they figured it out, the Hittites profited greatly. Iron was in high demand. Soon they established new trade networks.After 1180 BCE, a new community arrived. They were called the Sea Peoples. No one knew where they came from. However, they had enough ships to raid Mediterranean and Egyptian cities. Unrest began in the Levant. The Hittite kingdom had to scatter into several independent Neo-Hittite city-states. What we know of Hittite history comes mostly from cuneiform39writing found in the area. We have also learned about them from mail found in Egypt and the Middle East. The cuneiform writing suggests that the Hittites had some connection with the city-states of Mesopotamia. Perhaps this was due to established networks with Mesopotamia.The Hittite stateNow for some politics. The head of the Hittite state was the king. He was followed by the heir-apparent, usually the king's son. But there were some other officials. They had independent power over various branches of the government. That means the king didn't really control every part of the kingdom. For example, there was a Chief of the Royal Bodyguards, a Chief of the Scribes40, and even a Chief of the Wine Stewards.Not much is known about the everyday Hittite way of life. Few written documents survived. Most are about kings and their campaigns. It is known that the Hittites wrote using Akkadian script (cuneiform) but in their own Indo-European language. They used cylinder seals to sign documents and mark property. People throughout Mesopotamia did that too. It suggests a link between Hittite and Mesopotamian cultures. Or possibly the Hittites learned those Mesopotamian customs from other groups they had conquered, like the Hattians. Some scholars note the details of Hittite life and culture seem to be only slightly different from those of the Hattian people. Even the name "Hittite" comes from the word Hattie. But we don't know the exact relationship between the Hittites and the Mesopotamians. Some of the writings and artifacts we have from the Hittites tell us about their beliefs. It was similar to the Hatti's. Storm gods were important to the Hittites. The storm god was known as Tarhunt. He was called the Conqueror, the King of Kummiya, King of Heaven, and Lord of the land of Hatti. He was the god ofbattle and victory, especially against foreign powers. This suggests the Hittites cared very much about military power.Military technologyOne military engagement the Hittites are famous for is the Battle of Kadesh in 1274 BCE. They faced the army of theEgyptian pharaoh Ramesses II. This battle is especially important because both sides claimed victory. That led to the first known peace treaty in world history, in 1258 BCE.The Hittites had been pushing into Egyptian land for centuries. Then Pharaoh Ramesses II resolved to drive the Hittites from his borders in 1274 BCE. He aimed to capture the city of Kadesh, a center of trade, which 39Cuneiform—literally meaning "wedge shape"—is a writing system invented by the Sumerians. The symbols are wedge-shaped and usually carved into clay tablets.40Scribes created and maintained written records for the government.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader75the Hittites held. Ramesses marched from Egypt. Over 20,000 of soldiers were led to battle. Their opponents' troops were being led by the king of the Hittites, named Muwatalli.The Egyptian and Hittite armies were pretty evenly matched. The fight was basically a tie. Both sides claimed victory. The Egyptian chariots were faster because they only had two people aboard them. But since the Hittite chariots had an extra person, they could throw more spears. Egyptian and Hittite military technology was some of the most sophisticated of its time. Both had chariots and strong iron tools. Each side had a military powerful enough to send troops to war. They used them to fight to keep control over their empires. From Ramesses' point of view, he had defeated his enemy in battle. So, he claimed victory for Egypt. But Muwatalli noticed he still had control over Kadesh, which was what Ramesses was after, so he claimed victory as well. Muwatalli’s brother and successor was the one who arranged a truce with Ramesses II. The Treaty of Kadesh—the first peace treaty—written about 15 years after the Battle of Kadesh, was an important document. It represented how rulers negotiated to maintain control of their empires.Introduction to Agrarian SocietiesAbout 5000 years ago, cities, states, and societies began forming around the world. Though they knew little or nothing of humans outside their own regions, these developments happened during the same narrow sliver of cosmic time.Introduction to Agrarian Societies (1080L)Cynthia Stokes BrownDefinitionsThe first agrarian societies began to develop about 3300 BCE. These early farming societies startedin four areas:1) Mesopotamia, 2) Egypt and Nubia, 3) the Indus Valley, and 4) the Andes Mountains of South America. More appeared in China around 2000 BCE and in modern-day Mexico and Central America c. 1500 BCE. Why did societies form in these places?First, let's clarify the definitions of the words city, state, and society.A "city" contains tens of thousands of people. It's larger than a town, which contains usually fewer than ten thousand people. A village usually has fewer than a thousand people. In towns and villages, farming was the most common occupation. People in cities had a wider variety of occupations, but farmers lived there as well.A "state" is a city, or several cities, plus the surrounding villages and farms. A state could include hundreds of thousands of people, even millions. The people living in a state had different status depending on their social rank, wealth, and power. Also, some individuals commanded great respect as religious figures when it was believed they could communicate with the gods or spirit world. A few people called "elites" were on top. Elites typically made up no more than 10 percent of the population, yet had more wealth and power than
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader76the bottom 90 percent. Most states were ruled by these elites, who kept order and collected taxes or tribute41through the use of force, if necessary.And it doesn't end with states, because from states arose empires. Usually a single ruler, who controlled large territories of cities and farmland, maintained control over the empire. These large states are often called "societies" or "civilizations."42Since these early societies always depended on the farming around them, we call them "agrarian societies." Most of these societies share certain characteristics. They have dense populations and are controlled by elites. Other kinds of societies were less complex, but it is important to note that complex does not mean better, just different.Places of early societiesFour of the earliest agrarian societies developed in fertile rivervalleys. Since people had already tamed plants and animals in those areas, societies had a head start.The first of these formed in Mesopotamia, now called Iraq. What made this area so fertile was the land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Easy access to water helped people grow more crops in these valleys, in particular wheat and barley. Mesopotamians also grew lentils and chickpeas and herded sheep and goats.The next three places in Afro-Eurasia where agrarian societies emerged were in the Nile River Valley in Egypt and Nubia, the Indus River Valley in modern-day Pakistan and India, and the Huang He (Yellow) River Valley in China. Each river valley had its own types of plants and animals that people had cultivated from the wild nearby. The Egyptians and Nubians had wheat, barley, cattle, fish, and birds. The Indus Valley people raised cattle and cotton, as well as wheat, barley, lentils, sheep, goats, and chickens. In China, wheat was grown in the north. Rice was cultivated later in the south. Pigs, chickens, and soybeans also formed the main crops in China.Meanwhile in the Americas, large societies began to emerge as well. The first was at Norte-Chico in modern-day Peru about 3200 BCE, then later among the Olmec founded in modern-day Mexico about 1500 BCE. Of course, food production was still key, but the menu was pretty different. People in Central America learned to grow maize (corn), peppers, tomatoes, squash, beans, peanuts, and cotton. Their only domestic animals were dogs and turkeys. Along the Andes Mountains in South America, people used llamas and alpacas for wool and transport, and they domesticated cotton for use in clothing and tapestries. For food they depended mostly on potatoes and quinoa, a grain rich in protein. They had guinea pigs, and fish brought up from the coast.41"Tax" and "tribute" are almost synonyms in this context, in that both are forms of payment made to some governing authority. Tax generally means money, and tribute means a required "gift" of goods. 42We've made a conscious decision at WHP to use the term societies instead of civilizations in order to make sure that the course is equitable and respectful of all types of communities. The word civilization often implies that the area we're studying is more highly evolved or better than other forms of communities such as those composed of foragers and pastoralists, which is not the case. Societies such as Mesopotamia, Egypt and Nubia, the Indus Valley, China, and those of Central and South America are simply organized differently rather than being superior to others.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader77Why and how did states emerge?After people learned to grow plants and tame animals, they gradually learned to utilize animals for a variety of things other than food. At first, they used animals just for milk, wool, manure, and muscle power. The world's population was able to grow dramatically as humans farmed more. In 8000 BCE, it stood at approximately 5 million. By 3000 BCE, it was about 14 million.At the same time, the climate was changing dramatically. The Earth had been gradually warming since the height of the last ice age, which was about 20,000 BCE. By about 8000 BCE it had reached a stable level of warmth. After this point, the climate in the northern hemisphere generally became drier, possibly due to slight changes in the Earth's orbit. This dryness drove people from mountain areas down into river valleys to find water and resources. During floods, rich soil was deposited into the valleys. It made the land fertile and good for farming.As more food became available and people lived closer together, the social structure changed. A handful of people became more powerful than the rest. In most societies, these groups of elite members, who usually had accumulated more wealth and possessions, became a ruling class.Why did the majority of people allow this to happen?We can only guess that leaders were needed to manage projects like building big watering systems (irrigation) or erecting large structures like temples or dividing up extra (surplus) food. They also needed armed protection against groups nearby. At the same time, priests and rulers could take opportunities to control the extra food supply. Controlling food meant power, and gradually their power grew. They formed political or religious groups that ruled over the land and its people.It would be a mistake to assume that all early societies were organized in the same way. Certainly, many were ruled and organized by the elites with the most power and wealth. However, there were other social organizations thatdid not measure a person's power by wealth or military strength but rather on different aspects such as family status or belief in a person's spiritual powers. There were also states that had elders or those with some authority, but that power was limitedand seen as advisory rather than authoritarian. Helpful, but not a "boss". Even though states with these types of limited power were in the minority, it is important to know that not all societies worked the same way. There were shared characteristics among societies, but each had different ways of organizing and dividing their communities. In other words, there is not one generic formula for analyzing the ways in which societies formed or were structured.Areas without early societiesSome areas of the world did not produce full-blown cities or states early on. Even so, the trend toward agriculture seems to have been present everywhere.In sub-Saharan Africa, people were separated from the northern coast by the harsh desert. Rain forests covered much of the land. The Bantu people, in the eastern part of modern Nigeria, cultivated yams, oil palm trees, millet, and sorghum and herded cattle. Eventually camels replaced horses and donkeys for travel across the Sahara. Arab merchants could now make their way across the desert to the west coast. Small regional states and kingdoms emerged. But in this more challenging region it took some time before a major agrarian society would form.Small islands in the Pacific did not have the resources to create full-scale agrarian societies. But their smaller states and chiefdoms had features similar to those around the world. In Australia, agriculture never really
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader78materialized. This was mainly due to poor soil and the isolation of the island. But also there was less need for large-scale farming because the techniques used, such as controlled burns and continued foraging, provided ample resources to feed the people who lived there.And let's not leave out South America. Archaeologists have long thought that the basin of the Amazon River didn't contain the resources to support dense human societies. But recent evidence suggests that people there found ways to fertilize the soil by adding charcoal.Comparing early agrarian societiesThe earliest agrarian states always had at leasttwo things in common: a high-ranking group in control, and the forceful collection of taxes or tribute. It seems centralized state control was needed to bring together and support large populations of people. Yet, these societies developed many similar traits beyond those.Common characteristics included the following:•Storage of surplus food•Development of a priestly class; a state religion based on gods/goddesses•Central rule (such as a king, pharaoh, or emperor)•Specialized jobs•Social rank based on wealth, ancestry, and job•Increased trade•Systems of writing or recording information; increased collective learning•Armies and increased warfare•Monumental public architecture (temples, pyramids)•More inequality between men and women; male-dominated traditionsDespite all these similarities, the differences between these early societies was just as important. For example, societies in northern Africa and Eurasia were connected with each other soon after they began. Together they formed an Afro-Eurasian zone where people traded goods and exchanged ideas and technology. A complex network of roads and sea routes used for the production and distribution of goods as well as for the transmission of ideas and diseases ran across this region.In the Americas it wasa different story. True, artifacts found in numerous locations show evidence of some connection among early societies in the Americas. But they were not as well-connected as those in Afro-Eurasia. This was mainly because they had fewer kinds of transport animals. In addition, the terrain separating the north from south was more difficult to get through and included high mountain ranges and dense rainforests.Early states shared many traits that made them successful. But with a closer look we can see fascinating details that made them different. The vast majority of early societies developed writing—except the Inca in the Andes. They instead used a system of tying knots in different colored string, called quipu, to record their trade and possibly even their stories.Most early societies engaged in warfare—except, perhaps, in the Indus Valley (Harappa) and in some areas of South America (Norte Chico and Chavín). Though some arrowheads and spears have been found in Harappa, archeologists have not turned up any swords, helmets, or shields that a warring society would have used. We have found no evidence that the Chavín had a military or rulers, apart from signs of a priestly class that conducted rituals. Of the societies that used writing, all started by using pictographs but most switched
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader79to some form of alphabet, which the exceptions of the Chinese and Central and South American cultures that existed before the arrival of Europeans. To this day the Chinese still use pictographs in their writing. Many societies sacrificed animals and sometimes humans to the gods, but some societies in Central and South America used human bloodletting and sacrifice on a much larger scale than others. While early societies shared many common features, the differences form a rich andvaried collage of human culture.Author BioCynthia Stokes Brown was a professor emerita of education and history at Dominican University of California. She pioneered the teaching of big history at Dominican and is the author of Big History: From the Big Bang to the Present.Introduction to Agrarian Societies (1060L)Cynthia Stokes BrownDefinitionsThe first agrarian societies began to develop about 3300 BCE. These early farming societies started in four areas:1) Mesopotamia, 2) Egypt and Nubia (now northern Sudan), 3) the Indus Valley, and 4) the Andes Mountains of South America. More appeared in China around 2000 BCE and in modern-day Mexico and Central America around 1500 BCE. Why did societies form in these places? First, let's clarify the definitions of the words city, state and society.A "city" contains tens of thousands of people. It's larger than a town, which contains usually fewer than 10,000 people. A village usually has fewer than 1,000 people. In towns and villages, farming was the most common occupation. People in cities had a wider variety of occupations, but farmers lived there as well.A "state" is a city, or several cities, plus the surrounding villages and farms. A state could include hundreds of thousands of people, even millions. The people living in a state had different status depending on their social rank, wealth and power. Also, some individuals commanded great respect as religious figures when it was believed they could communicate with the gods or spirit world. A few people called "elites" were on top. Elites typically made up no more than 10 percent of the population, yet had more wealth and power than the bottom 90 percent. Most states were ruled by these elites, who kept order and collected taxes or tribute43through the use of force, if necessary.43"Tax" and "tribute" are almost synonyms in this context, in that both are forms of payment made to some governing authority. Tax generally means money, and tribute means a required "gift" of goods.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader80And it doesn't end with states, because from states arose empires. Usually a single ruler, who controlled large territories of cities and farmland, maintained control over the empire. These large states are often called "societies" or "civilizations."44Since these early societies always depended on the farming around them, we call them "agrarian societies." Most of these societies share certain characteristics. They have dense populations and are controlled by elites. Other kinds of societies were less complex, but it is important to note that complex does not mean better, just different.Places of early societiesFour of the earliest agrarian societies developed in fertile river valleys. Since people had already tamed plants and animals in those areas, societies had a head start.The first of these formed in Mesopotamia, now called Iraq. What made this area so fertile was the land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Easy access to water helped people grow more crops in these valleys, in particular wheat and barley. Mesopotamians also grew lentils and chickpeas and herded sheep and goats.The next three places in Afro-Eurasia where agrarian societies emerged were in the Nile River Valley in Egypt and Nubia; the Indus River Valley in modern-day Pakistan and India; and the Huang He (Yellow) River Valley in China. Each river valley had its own types of plants and animals that people had cultivated from the wild nearby. The Egyptians and Nubians had wheat, barley, cattle, fish and birds. The Indus Valley people raised cattle and cotton, as well as wheat, barley, lentils, sheep, goats and chickens. In China, wheat was grown in the north. Rice was cultivated later in the south. Pigs, chickens and soybeans also formed the main food sources in China.Meanwhile in the Americas, large societies began to emerge as well. The first was at Norte-Chico in modern-day Peru about 3200 BCE, then later among the Olmec found in modern-day Mexico about 1500 BCE. Of course, food production was still key, but the menu was different. People in Central America learned to grow maize (corn), peppers, tomatoes, squash, beans, peanuts and cotton. Their only domestic animals were dogs and turkeys. Along the Andes Mountains in South America, people used llamas and alpacas for wool and transport, and they domesticated cotton for use in clothing and tapestries. For food they depended mostly on potatoes and quinoa, a grain rich in protein. They had guinea pigs, and fish brought up from the coast.Why and howdid states emerge?After people learned to grow plants and tame animals, they gradually learned to utilize animals for a variety of things other than food. At first, they used animals just for milk, wool, manure and muscle power. The world's population was able to grow dramatically as humans farmed more. In 8000 BCE, it stood at approximately 5 million. By 3000 BCE, it was about 14 million.44We've made a conscious decision at WHP to use the term societies instead of civilizations in order to make sure that the course is equitable and respectful of all types of communities. The word civilization often implies that the area we're studying is more highly evolved or better than other forms of communities such as those composed of foragers and pastoralists, which is not the case. Societies such as Mesopotamia, Egypt and Nubia, the Indus Valley, China, and those of Central America and South America are simply organized differently rather than being superior to others.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader81At the same time, the climate was changing dramatically. The Earth had been gradually warming since the height of thelast ice age, which was about 20,000 BCE. By about 8000 BCE it had reached a stable level of warmth. After this point, the climate in the northern hemisphere generally became drier, possibly due to slight changes in the Earth's orbit. This dryness drove people from mountain areas down into river valleys to find water and resources. During floods, rich soil was deposited into the valleys. It made the land fertile and good for farming.As more food became available and people lived closer together, the social structure changed. A handful of people became more powerful than the rest. In most societies, these groups of elite members, who usually had accumulated more wealth and possessions, became a ruling class. Why did the majority of people allow this to happen?We can only guess that leaders were needed to manage projects like building big watering systems (irrigation) or erecting large structures like temples or dividing up extra (surplus) food. They also needed armed protection against groups nearby. At thesame time, priests and rulers could take opportunities to control the extra food supply. Controlling food meant power, and gradually their power grew. They formed political or religious groups that ruled over the land and its people.It would be a mistaketo assume that all early societies were organized in the same way. Certainly, many were ruled and organized by the elites with the most power and wealth. However, there were other social organizations that did not measure a person's power by wealth or military strength but rather on different aspects such as family status or belief in a person's spiritual powers. There were also states that had elders or those with some authority, but that power was limited and seen as advisory rather than authoritarian. Helpful, but not a "boss." Even though states with these types of limited power were in the minority, it is important to know that not all societies worked the same way. There were shared characteristics among societies, but each had different ways of organizing and dividing their communities. In other words, there is not one generic formula for analyzing the ways in which societies formed or were structured.Areas without early societiesSome areas of the world did not produce full-blown cities or states early on. Even so, the trend toward agriculture seems to have been present everywhere.In sub-Saharan Africa, people were separated from the northern coast by the harsh desert. Rain forests covered much of the land. The Bantu people, in the eastern part of modern Nigeria, cultivated yams, oil palm trees, millet, and sorghum, and herded cattle. Eventually camels replaced horses and donkeys for travel across the Sahara. Arab merchants could now make their way across the desert to the west coast. Small regional states and kingdoms emerged. But in this more challenging region it took some time before a major agrarian society would form.Small islands in the Pacific did not have the resources to create full-scale agrarian societies. But their smaller states and chiefdoms had features similar to those around the world. In Australia, agriculture never really materialized. This was mainly due to poor soil and the isolation of the island. But also there was less need for large-scale farming because the techniques used, such as controlled burns and continued foraging, provided ample resources to feed the people who lived there.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader82And let's not leave out South America. Archaeologists have long thought the basin of the Amazon River didn't contain the resources to support dense human societies. But recent evidence suggests people there found ways to fertilize the soil by adding charcoal.Comparing early agrarian societiesThe earliest agrarian states always had at least two things in common: a high-ranking group in control and the forceful collection of taxes or tribute. It seems centralized state control was needed to bring together and support large populations of people. Yet, these societies developed many similar traits beyond those.Common characteristics included the following:•storage of surplus food•development of a priestly class; a state religion based on gods/goddesses•central rule (such as a king, pharaoh or emperor)•specialized jobs•social rank based on wealth•ancestry and job•increased trade•systems of writing or recording information•increased collective learning; armies and increased warfare•monumental public architecture (temples or pyramids)•more inequality between men and women; and male-dominated traditionsDespite these similarities, the differences between these early societies were just as important. For example, societies in northern Africa and Eurasia were connected with each other soon after they began. Together they formed an Afro-Eurasian zone where people traded goods and exchanged ideas and technology. A complex network of roads and sea routes used for the production and distribution of goods as well as for the transmission of ideas and diseases ran across this region.In the Americas it was a different story. True, artifacts found in numerous locations show evidence of some connection among early societies in the Americas. But they were not as well-connected as those in Afro-Eurasia. This was mainly because they had fewer kinds of transport animals. In addition, the terrain separating thenorth from south was more difficult to get through and included high mountain ranges and dense rainforests.Early states shared many traits that made them successful. But with a closer look we can see fascinating details that made them different. The vastmajority of early societies developed writing—except the Inca in the Andes. They instead used a system of tying knots in different colored string, called quipu, to record their trade and possibly even their stories.Most early societies engaged in warfare—except, perhaps, in the Indus Valley (Harappa) and in some areas of South America (Norte Chico and Chavín). Though some arrowheads and spears have been found in Harappa, archaeologists have not turned up any swords, helmets or shields that a warring society would have used. We have found no evidence that the Chavín had a military or rulers, apart from signs of a priestly class that conducted rituals. Of the societies that used writing, all started by using pictographs but most switched to some form of alphabet, which the exceptions of the Chinese and Central and South American cultures that existed before the arrival of Europeans. To this day, the Chinese still use pictographs in their writing. Many societies sacrificed animals and sometimes humans to the gods, but some societies in Central
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader83America and South America used human bloodletting and sacrifice on a much larger scale than others. While early societies shared many common features, the differences form a rich and varied collage of human culture.Introduction to Agrarian Societies (950L)Cynthia Stokes BrownDefinitionsThe first agrarian, or farming, societies began to develop about 3300 BCE. These early farming societies started in four areas: 1) Mesopotamia, 2) Egypt and Nubia, 3) the Indus Valley, and 4) the Andes Mountains of South America. First, let’s understand the definitions of the words city, state, and society.A “city” contains tens of thousands of people. It’s large than a town, which contains usually fewer than ten thousand people. A village usually has fewer than a thousand people. In towns and villages, farming was the most common occupation. People in cities had a wider variety of occupations, but farmers lived there as well.A “state” is a city, or several cities, plus the surrounding villages and farms. A state could include hundreds of thousands of people, even millions. The people living in a state had different status depending on their social rank, wealth, and power. Also, some individuals commanded great respect as religious figures when it was believed they could communicate with the gods or spirit world. A few people called “elites” were on top. Elites typically made up no more than 10 percent of the population, yet had more wealth and power than the bottom 90 percent. Most states were ruled by these elites, who kept order and collected taxes or tribute through the use of force if necessary. And it doesn’t end with states, because from states arose empires. Usually a single ruler, who controlled large territories of cities and farmland, maintained control over the empire. These large states are often called “societies or “civilizations.”45Since these early societies always depended on farming around them, we call them “agrarian societies.” Most of these societies share certain characteristics. They have dense populations and are controlled by elites. Other kinds of societies were less complex, but it is important to note that complex does not mean better, just different.Places of early societiesFour of the earliest agrarian societies developed in fertile river valleys. Since people had already tamed plants and animals in those areas, societies had a head start.45We've made a conscious decision at WHP to use the term societies instead of civilizations in order to make sure that the course is equitable and respectful of all types of communities. The word civilization often implies that the area we're studying is more highly evolved or better than other forms of communities such as those composed of foragers and pastoralists, which is not the case. Societies such as Mesopotamia, Egypt and Nubia, the Indus Valley, China, and those of Central America and South America are simply organized differently rather than being superior to others.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader84The first of these formed in Mesopotamia, now called Iraq. What made this area so fertile was the land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Easy access to water helped people there grow more crops in these valleys, in particular wheat and barley. Mesopotamians also grew lentils and chickpeas and herded sheep and goats.The next three places in Afro-Eurasia includedthe Nile River Valley in Africa's Egypt and Nubia; the Indus River Valley in modern-day Pakistan and India; and the Huang He (Yellow) River Valley in China. Each area had plants and animals that its people learned to cultivate from the wild. The Egyptiansand Nubians raised wheat, barley, cattle and birds. The Indus Valley people had cattle and cotton, as well as wheat, barley, lentils, sheep, goats and chickens. In China, wheat was grown in the north, while rice was cultivated later in the south. Pigs andchickens were domesticated as livestock.In the Americas, larger societies began to form, as well. The first was at Norte-Chico, where Peru is today, in about 3200 BCE. About 1,700 years later, the Olmec society took form in what became Mexico. Food production was key, but the menu varied. People in Central America learned to grow maize (corn), peppers, tomatoes, squash, beans, peanuts and cotton. Their only domestic animals were dogs and turkeys. Along the Andes Mountains in South America, people used llamas and alpacas for wool and transport, and they grew cotton for use in clothing and tapestries. For food they depended mostly on potatoes and quinoa, a protein-rich grain. They also ate guinea pigs and fish brought from the coast.Why and how did states emerge?Improved farming practices allowed the world's population to grow dramatically. In 8000 BCE, the number of people in the world stood at approximately 5 million. By 3000 BCE, the population had almost tripled to 14 million.The climate was changing dramatically. The Earth had been warming since the height of the last ice age, about 20,000 BCE. By about 8000 BCE the Earth's regional climates had become warmer, on average, supporting agricultural production. After this point, the climate in the northernhemisphere generally became drier. This dryness attracted people from mountain areas down into river valleys to access water and resources. During annual spring floods, rich soil was deposited into the valleys. It made the land fertile and good for farming.As more food became available and populations shifted to larger communities, the social structure changed. In most societies, leading members became a ruling class, perhaps based on wealth, power or wisdom. Why did this pattern develop? Perhaps leaders were needed to manage tasks like making irrigation systems or building projects. Leadership skills would also have been useful in competition and conflict with other groups and societies. However, not all early societies were organized in the same way. Areas without early societiesSome areas of the world were slow in developing full-blown cities or states. Even so, the trend toward agriculture seems to have been present everywhere.In sub-Saharan Africa, for example, people were separated from the northern coast by the harsh desert. Rain forests covered much of the land. The Bantu people, in the eastern part of what is Nigeria today, cultivated yams, oil palm trees, millet, and herded cattle. Small regional states and kingdoms emerged. But in this more challenging region it took some time before a major agrarian society formed.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader85Small islands in the Pacific did not have the resources to create full-scale agrarian societies. But their smaller states and chiefdoms had features similar to those around the world. In Australia, agriculture never really materialized. In general, resources there were sufficient to support the population by means of hunting and gathering. And let’s not leave out South America. Archaeologists have long thought that the basin of the Amazon River didn’t contain enough resources to support large human societies. But recent evidence suggests that people living here found ways to fertilize the soil with charcoal.Comparing early agrarian societiesThe earliest agrarian states always had at least two things in common: a high-ranking group in control, and the forceful collection of taxes or tribute46. It seems centralized state control was needed to bring together and support large populations of people. Yet, these societies developed many similar traits beyond those, including:•Storage of surplus food •Development of a priestly class and state religion •Central rule (such as a king, pharaoh, or emperor) •Specialized jobs •Social rank based on wealth and ancestry•Systems of writing •Armies and increased warfare •Monumental public architecture (temples, pyramids) •More inequality between men and women•Increased trade Despite all these similarities, the differences between these early societies was just as important. For example, societies in northern Africa and Eurasia were connected with each other soon after they began. Together they formed an Afro-Eurasian zone where people traded goods and exchanged ideas and technology. A complex network of roads and sea routes used for the production and distribution of goods as well as for the transmission of ideas and diseases ran across this region.In the Americas it was a different story. True, artifacts found in numerous locations show evidence of some connection among early societies in the Americas. But they were not as well-connected as those in Afro-Eurasia. This was mainly because they had fewer kinds of transport animals. In addition, the terrain separating the north from south was more difficult to get through and included high mountain ranges and dense rainforests.Early states shared many traits that made them successful. But with a closer look we can see fascinating details that made them different. The vast majority of early societies developed writing—except the Inca in the Andes. They instead used a system of tying knots in different colored string, called quipu, to record their trade and possibly even their stories.46"Tax" and "tribute"are almost synonyms in this context, in that both are forms of payment made to some governing authority. Tax generally means money, and tribute means a required "gift" of goods.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader86Most early societies engaged in warfare—except, perhaps, in the Indus Valley (Harappa) and in some areas of South America (Norte Chico and Chavín). Though some arrowheads and spears have been found in Harappa, archeologists have not turned up any swords, helmets, or shields that a warring society would have used. We have found no evidence that the Chavín had a military or rulers, apart from signs of a priestly class that conducted rituals. Of the societies that used writing, all started by using pictographs but most switched to some form of alphabet, which the exceptions of the Chinese and Central and South Americancultures that existed before the arrival of Europeans. To this day the Chinese still use pictographs in their writing. Many societies sacrificed animals and sometimes humans to the gods, but some societies in Central and South America used human bloodletting and sacrifice on a much larger scale than others. While early societies shared many common features, the differences form a rich and varied collage of human culture.Introduction to Agrarian Societies (820L)Cynthia Stokes BrownDefinitionsThe first agrarian, or agricultural, societies began to develop about 3300 BCE. These early farming societies started in four areas: 1) Mesopotamia, 2) Egypt and Nubia, 3) the Indus Valley, and 4) the Andes Mountains of South America. More appeared in China around 2000 BCE and in modern-day Mexico and Central America c. 1500 BCE. Why did societies form in these places? First, let’s understand the definitions of the words city, state, and society.A “city” contains tens of thousands of people. It’s large than a town,which contains usually fewer than ten thousand people. A village usually has fewer than a thousand people. In towns and villages, farming was the most common job. People in cities had a variety of occupations, but farmers lived there as well.A “state” isa city, or many cities. A state can include villages and farms around the cities. A state could include hundreds of thousands of people, even millions. People living in a state had social rank.From states, empires formed. They usually had a single ruler who controlled a large territory. These are often called “societies or “civilizations.”47Since these early societies always depended on the farming around them, we call them “agrarian societies.” Most of these societies share certain characteristics. They have dense populations and are controlled by elites. Other kinds of societies were less complex, but it’s important to note that complex does not mean better, just different.47We've made a conscious decision at WHP to use the term societies instead of civilizations in order to make sure that the course is equitable and respectful of all types of communities. The word civilization often implies that the area we're studying is more highly evolved or better than other forms of communities such as those composed of foragers and pastoralists, which is not the case. Societies such as Mesopotamia, Egypt and Nubia, the Indus Valley, China, and those of Central America and South America are simply organized differently rather than being superior to others.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader87Places of early societiesFour of the earliest agrarian societies developed in fertile river valleys. Since people had already tamed plants and animals in those areas, societies had a head start.The first of these was in Mesopotamia, where Iraq is today. The land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers was especially fertile. Easy access to water helped people there grow more crops. Mesopotamians grew wheat, barley and lentils. They also herded sheep and goats.The other three sites in Afro-Eurasia included the Nile River Valley in Africa; the Indus River Valley in modern-day Pakistan and India; and the Huang He (Yellow) River Valley in China. Each place had plants and animals that the people learned to grow from the wild. The Egyptians and Nubians raised wheat, barley, cattle and birds. The Indus Valley people had cattle and cotton, as well as wheat, goats and chickens. In China, wheat was grown in the north, and, later, rice in the south. They also raised pigs and chickens.In the Americas, larger societies began to form. The first was at Norte-Chico. It began in about 3200 BCE wherePeru is today. About 1,700 years later, a society took form in what became Mexico. They were the Olmec people. Farmers in Central America learned to grow corn, squash, beans and cotton. Their only domestic animals were dogs and turkeys. Along the Andes Mountains in South America, people used llamas and alpacas for wool and transport. For food they depended mostly on potatoes and quinoa, a protein-rich grain. Why and how did states emerge?After people learned to grow plants and tame animals, they gradually learned to use animals for a variety of things other than food. Improved farming practices allowed the world's population to grow rapidly. In 8000 BCE, there were about 5 million people in the world. By 3000 BCE, the population had almost tripled to 14 million.The climate was changing, too. The Earth had been warming since about 20,000 BCE. After 8000 BCE, the climate in the northern hemisphere generally became drier. People moved into river valleys for water and good growing areas. During spring floods, rich soil was deposited there. It made the land fertile for farms.As communities grew, their societies changed. A handful of people took on leadership roles. In most societies, these leaders became a ruling class. Why did this pattern develop? Perhaps these leaders were wealthy and powerful. Perhaps they were needed to manage projects like irrigation systems or construction. Leadership skills would also have been useful in competition and conflict with other groups. Priests and rulers also couldcontrol the food supply.Early societies were organized differently. There was not one exact way that societies were formed. Some states were ruled by elites with the most power and wealth. But other societies had leaders based on a person’s family statusor belief in a person’s spiritual powers. There were also states that had elders or those with some authority, but that power was limited and seen as an advisor rather than a “boss”. Even though these types of states were in the minority, it’s important to know that not all societies worked in the same way. Areas without early societiesSome areas of the world were slow to develop cities or states. However, the practice of farming seems to have been present everywhere.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader88Sub-Saharan Africa is one example. People in the center of the continent were separated from the northern coast by the harsh desert. The Bantu people lived in what is Nigeria today. There, they cultivated yams and millet and herded cattle. Small regional states and kingdoms emerged. But it took longer for a big agrarian society to form there.Small islands in the Pacific faced similar challenges. They did not have the resources or land to support large agrarian societies. In Australia, agriculture never really developed. In general, the localpeople there could thrive by means of hunting and gathering. In South America, archaeologists once believed that the basin of the Amazon River couldn’t support large human communities. But recent evidence suggests that people here fertilized the soil by adding charcoal.Comparing early agrarian societiesThe earliest agrarian states always had at least two things in common: 1) there was a high-ranking group in control; and 2) there was a system to force people to pay taxes or tribute48. It seems centralized state control was needed to manage large populations of people. Yet, these societies developed many other similar traits. These include:•Storage of surplus food•Development of a state religion•Specialized jobs•Social rank based on wealth and ancestry•Systems of writing•Armies and warfare•Public architecture (such as temples and pyramids)•More inequality between men and women•Increased tradeInterestingly, agrarian societies far from each other developed similar social systems. These systems aided their growth. At the same time, the differences between societies contributed to the variety of human culture.But the differences between these early societies was just as important. For example, societies in northern Africa and Eurasia were connected with each other soon after they began. Together they shared a complex network of roads and sea routes used for the production and distribution of goods as well as for the exchange of ideas and diseases across this region.In the Americas it was a different story. Many of these societies were connected. But they were not as well-connected as those in Afro-Eurasia. This was mainly because they had fewer kinds of transport animals. Also, it was more difficult to travel due to high mountain ranges and dense rainforests.Early states shared many traits that made them successful. But with a closer look we can see fascinating details that made them different. The vast majority of early societies developed writing—except the Inca in the Andes. They instead used a system of tying knots in different colored string, called quipu, to record their 48"Tax" and "tribute" are almost synonyms in this context, in that both are forms of payment made to some governing authority. Tax generally means money, and tribute means a required "gift" of goods.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader89trade and possibly even their stories. Of the societies that used writing, all started by using pictographs but most switched to some form of alphabet, which the exceptions of the Chinese and Central and South American cultures that existed before the arrival of Europeans.Most early societies engaged in warfare—except maybe in the Indus Valley (Harappa) and in some areas of South America (Norte Chico and Chavín). Though some arrowheads andspears have been found in Harappa, archeologists have not turned up any swords, helmets, or shields that a warring society would have used. We have found no evidence that the Chavín had a military or rulers, apart from signs of a priestly class that conducted rituals. While early societies shared many common features, the differences form a rich and varied collage of human culture.Introduction to Agrarian Societies (650L)Cynthia Stokes BrownDefinitionsThe first agrarian, or farming, societies49began about 3300 BCE. New farming practices changed where and how people lived. First, let’s understand the definitions of the words city, state, and society.A “city” contains tens of thousands of people. It is large than a town. People in cities had a variety of jobs, but farmers lived there as well.A “state” is a city, or many cities. A state can include villages and farms around the cities. A state could include hundreds of thousands of people, even millions. People living in a state had social rank.From states, empires formed. They usually had a single ruler who controlled a large territory. These are often called “societies or “civilizations.”Places of early societiesScientists have found four places in the world where these farming societies began. All started in fertile river valleys. The first was in Mesopotamia. It was located where Iraq is today. There, the land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers was very fertile. Easy access to water helped people there grow more crops. Mesopotamians grew wheat and lentils. They also herded sheep and goats.The other three sites were the Nile River Valley in Africa; the Indus River Valley in Central Asia; and the Huang He (Yellow) River Valley in China. In each place, people figured out how to farm plantsand animals that had been wild. The Egyptians and Nubians grew wheat and barley. They raised cattle and birds. The 49We've made a conscious decision at WHP to use the term societies instead of civilizations in order to make sure that the course is equitable and respectful of all types of communities. The word civilization often implies that the area we're studying is more highly evolved or better than other forms of communities such as those composed of foragers and pastoralists, which is not the case. Societies such as Mesopotamia, Egypt and Nubia, the Indus Valley, China, and those of Central America and South America are simply organized differently rather than being superior to others.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader90Indus Valley people had cattle, wheat and cotton. In China, people planted wheat in the north. Later, they learned how to grow rice in the south. They also raised pigs and chickens.In the Americas, larger societies began to form, as well. The first was at Norte-Chico in about 3200 BCE. It was located where Peru is today. About 1500 BCE, a society took form in what became Mexico. They were theOlmec people. Farmers in Central America learned to grow corn, beans and cotton. Their only domestic animals were dogs and turkeys. In South America, people got wool from llamas and alpacas. They also used these animals to transport goods. For food, they depended mostly on potatoes and quinoa. Quinoa is a protein-rich grain. Why and how did states emerge?Better farming meant more food. More food meant the world's population grew rapidly. In 8000 BCE, there were about 5 million people in the world. By 3000 BCE, the population had grown to 14 million.A changing climate made it easier to farm. The Earth began warming about 20,000 BCE. After 8000 BCE, the climate in the northern hemisphere became drier. Drier weather attracted people to river valleys for water. During spring floods, rich soil was deposited there. It made the land fertile for farming.As communities grew, their societies changed. They became more organized. Some people became more powerful than the rest. These people became rulers. Why did this pattern develop? Perhaps these rulers were wealthy and powerful. Perhaps they were needed to manage projects like irrigation systems or construction. Leadership skills would also have been useful in times of conflict and war. Priests and rulers also could control the food supply.Early societies were organized differently. There was not one exact way that societies were formed. Some states were ruled by people with the most power and wealth. But other societies had leaders based on a person’s family status or spiritual powers. A smaller number of states had elders or rulers with limited power. They acted more like advisors rather than “bosses”. It’s important to know that not all societies worked in the same way.Areas without early societiesSome areas ofthe world were slow to develop cities or states. Farming, though, became more common everywhere.Sub-Saharan Africa is one example. The Bantu people lived in what is Nigeria today. There, they cultivated yams and millet and herded cattle. Small states andkingdoms emerged. But the region was difficult to farm. It took longer for a big agrarian society to form there.Small islands in the Pacific faced other challenges. They did not have the resources to support large societies. In Australia, agriculture never really developed. The people there could thrive by means of hunting and gathering. In South America near the Amazon River, evidence shows that people fertilized the soil by adding charcoal.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader91Comparing early agrarian societiesThe earliest agrarian states always had at least two things in common: 1) there were rulers in control; and 2)there was a system for forcing people to pay taxes or tribute50. It seems centralized rule was needed to manage large populations. Yet, these societies developed many other similar traits. These include:•Storage of surplus food•Development of a state religion•Specialized jobs•Systems of writing•Armies and warfare•Public buildings, like temples•Social rank•More inequality between men and women•More tradeInterestingly, farming societies developed similar social systems wherever they formed. These systems helped them grow. At the same time, the differences between societies contributed to the variety of human culture.Growth of CitiesCities forever changed the way humans lived. Cities connected the people living in them to one another, to surrounding farmland, and to people in other cities.Growth of Cities (1070L)Bennett SherryLet's hear it for UrukIn 2009 CE, two musical artists named Jay-Z and Alicia Keyes sang the praises of New York in lyrics that included the phrases, "concrete jungle where dreams are made of" and "big lights will inspire you". Nearly four millennia earlier another poet had written about the Mesopotamian city of Uruk, celebrating "the outer wall's cornice gleaming like copper in the sun" and declaring that "no king could ever build their equal." Different artists from different eras, but all were pretty excited about cities.These artists weren't alone. Ever since there have been cities, people have been singing their praises. Ancient Greek, Roman, and Chinese writers repeatedly compared their cities favorably to the countryside. In ancient literature, cities are often portrayed as sites of learning and prosperity, while rural areas get characterized as backward and uncivilized. However, many writers also noted the dangers of city life: that cities were immoral and corrupt. In twenty-first century America, you only need to read a news article to 50"Tax" and "tribute" are almost synonyms in this context, in that both are forms of payment made to some governing authority. Tax generally means money, and tribute means a required "gift" of goods.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader92find a journalist wringing their hands51over the "rural-urban divide" in American politics. For almost 6,000 years, people have divided their world between urban and rural, civilized and uncivilized.In 3000 BCE, the largest city in the world was Uruk. At about 50,000 people, it was half the size of South Bend, Indiana in the United States. Today, there are almost 50 different cities in the world with more than 10 million inhabitants. Tokyo alone has more people than the entire global population in 3000 BCE. Love them or hate them, the growth of citiesfundamentally changed human society and the ways we live together.The first citiesLike agriculture, the world's first cities developed independently in different parts of the world at different times. They first sprang up in Mesopotamia and Egypt around6,000 years ago and in China, India, and Southeast Asia 5,000 years ago. Another wave of urbanization began 4,000 to 2,500 years ago in Mesoamerica, the Andes mountains of South America, and sub-Saharan Africa. There was no single factor that made a city develop, but location certainly mattered. A city might sit at a good spot for agriculture, trade, or defense.City life usually meant you would be in a hierarchical social structure. And living in crowded conditions meant disease spread faster. On average,people in cities died earlier than those in rural areas. So why would anyone choose to live in a city? There are a few reasons. Diseases or not, cities provide safety. Walls and soldiers protected people from enemies, bandits, and wild animals. But citieswere also exciting arenas of social mobility. Like today, young people moved from rural areas to cities in search of money or jobs. Urban areas offer wider employment opportunities, while rural communities had few options besides farming. In a city, you could be a soldier or a priest, an artisan or a builder, a merchant or a weaver. The new possibilities would have been enticing. And cities only kept growing. By 1200 BCE, China had some of the world's largest, with Anyang in the Yellow River Valley housingas many as 200,000 people. By 100 CE, Rome was the largest city in the world with over a million inhabitants, and the largest city in the Americas was Teotihuacan with over 100,000.Urban hierarchy: Organizing citiesAn essential part of urbanization was the creation of hierarchies. The very word civilizationcreates a hierarchy. It comes from the Latin word for citizen. So, it suggests that city people are "civilized" by definition, and rural people are not. So the hierarchy starts by placing non-city folks at the bottom. But inside the city walls, there are far more levels. Cities held complex social hierarchies to keep things operating smoothly by convincing—or even coercing—people to do their jobs. Priests convincedpeople that the gods wanted the king to be king, and soldiers enforced the king's decisions.While Mesopotamian, Chinese, Mediterranean, and Mesoamerican cities had these characteristic hierarchies, others were quite different. Our understanding of ancient cities often comes from the writing left behind by the city dwellers of places like Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Greece. In other cities, whose writing we don't have or can't read, there is archaeological evidence of very different types of societies. In places like Jenne-Jeno on the Niger River (in modern-day Mali) and Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa on the Indus River (in modern-day Pakistan), there is no evidence of centralized authority of kings or temples, and it seems war was uncommon.51This is an expression that is used to describe when someone is very anxious about something.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader93Cities required impressive technological innovations. With more people living together on less land, city-dwellers needed new ways to feed everyone, store food surplus (more on that below), defend the city, and keep it clean. In cities, people produced new architectural methods, metalworking, and even running water and sewers. Aqueducts and qanats (underground water tunnels) brought clean water from distant mountains into the city. Extensive canals and irrigation improved transportation and farming. Irrigation and rice patties, dams and mines, canals and roads all reshaped the natural world surrounding ancient cities.Division of labor: Job specialization in citiesEvery city ever built relied on the availability of food surplus. If a society can't produce enough food, it can't support a bunch of people who don't farm. A surplus of food frees up some people from farming so they can store the surplus, count the surplus, protect the surplus, and decide who gets to eat how much of the surplus. This is how you get laborers, scribes, soldiers, and kings. Each occupies a different level on the hierarchy, and each gets different amounts or types of food. Cities were organized and made possible by a division of labor.Cities connected people through their work. It takes complicated networks of labor for cities to function. In a city, everybody relies on a bunch of other people in order to live. A shoemaker, for example, needs food from farmers in the hinterlands52, leather from animals herded by pastoralists or hunters, protection from soldiers, blessings from priests, and merchants to distribute their product. And all those people needed shoes from the shoemaker. In smaller rural villages, people were often more self-sufficient and networks were less dense. Cities reorganized community structures. In villages and towns, where people lived was determined by kinship groups. In cities, neighborhoods were based on economic functions and social status.Urban divisions of labor allowed cities to be productive, but they were still dependent on farms and villages. As cities grew, the hinterlands were pressured to produce food. When city rulers grew powerful, a networked hierarchy emerged. Cities were at the top, followed by towns, villages, and rural areas. As cities grew, rulers often conquered neighboring lands for the sole purpose of increasing agricultural productivity. When people in urban areas had steady access to food, they could focus on new professions and establish more extensive contacts through trade.Urban archipelago: Cities build networksCities connected the world. The rise of a world of cities in this era built larger and more complex networks. As some places got better at producing different things, cities traded more with each other. Different crops and animals were available in different places. If your city had a shortage of wheat, you could trade some of your wool for another city's surplus of food. Luxuries were also traded across the networks linking cities. For example, the Standard of Ur in the image below is from the Sumerian city of Ur and was made sometime around 2500 BCE. It is evidence of just how far ancient trade networks extended. The artist used lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, red marble from India, and seashells from the Persian Gulf.Cities also connected people in unfortunate ways. Sometimes, a king in one city got full of himself and launched wars to conquer other cities, establishing an empire and intensifying regional webs even more. And with so many people cramped together beside animals and waste, disease was a constant danger. The trade networks that connected cities meant that diseases in one place spread quickly to others.52Hinterlands are the rural lands outside a city that are economically tied to it.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader94Conclusion: Rural-urban divide?This article started with a discussion of the enduring divide between city and country. Ancient and modern writers all talk about urban and rural life as though they are distinct and separate. But if you've been reading this article carefully, you might already be suspicious of those talking points.Cities certainly created hierarchies and divisions of labor, but as divisive as that seems, cities overall were a triumph of connectedness. Many would say those connections included the rural areas as well. Kim Donehower, Charlotte Hogg, and Eileen Schell are all professors of writing specializing in rural rhetoric53. They argue that, "rural should not be seen in opposition to urban but as part of a complex global economic and social network." The growth of cities connected people in new ways, and rural farmers and nomadic pastoralists were essential to urban livelihoods. People and goods moved between these two worlds. Since there have been cities, writers have been contrasting urban and rural life. But they could not have made these comparisons unless they were familiar with both. Urban and rural lives have always been deeply interconnected.SourcesUr, Jason A. “Cycles of Civilization in Northern Mesopotamia, 4400-2000 BC.” Journal of Archaeological Research 18, no. 4, 2010.Donehower, Kim, Charlotte Hogg, and Eileen Schell. Rural Literacies. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 2007. Lees, Andrew. The City: A World History. New York: Oxford University Press, 2015.Gilgamesh. Translated by Stanley Lombardo. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing Company, 2019.Yoffee, Norman, ed. The Cambridge World History: Volume III: Early Cities in Comparative Perspective, 4000 BCE–1200 CE.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015.Author BioBennett Sherry holds a PhD in history from the University of Pittsburgh and has undergraduate teaching experience in world history, human rights, and the Middle East at the University of Pittsburgh and the University of Maine at Augusta. Additionally, he is a research associate at Pitt's World History Center. Bennett writes about refugees and international organizations in the twentieth century.53Rhetoric can be broadly defined as the art of persuasive writing. As experts in rural rhetoric, it means these three scholars carefully evaluate the language other writers use when discussing rural life. Rhetoric is a valuable persuasive tool, but can also be used to mislead or bias readers.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader95Growth of Cities (940L)Bennett SherryLet's hear it for UrukNearly four thousand years ago, a poet wrote a poem in praise of the Mesopotamian city of Uruk. He declared that "no king could ever build their equal." Its outer wall, he wrote, gleamed "like copper in the sun." Uruk was only one of countless cities celebrated throughout history. Ever since there have been cities, people have been singing their praises. Ancient Greek, Roman, and Chinese writers repeatedly compared their cities favorably to the countryside. In ancient literature, cities are often portrayedas sites of learning and wealth, while rural areas get characterized as backward and uncivilized. However, many writers also noted the dangers of city life. Cities, they claimed, were lawless and immoral.For almost 6,000 years, people have divided their world between the urban life of the city and the rural life of the country. Life in the city is seen as civilized, but also immoral. Life in the country is seen as uncivilized, but also pure and unspoiled. Even today, in 21st-century America, newspapers are filled with articles about the "rural-urban divide."In 3000 BCE, the largest city in the world was Uruk, which had a population of about 50,000 people. Today, there are almost 50 cities in the world with more than 10 million people. Tokyo alone has more people than the entire global population in 3000 BCE. Over time, cities have spread everywhere and have grown enormously. Love them or hate them, they have profoundly changed human society and the ways we live together.The first citiesThe world's firstcities developed independently in different parts of the world. They first sprang up in Mesopotamia and Egypt around 6,000 years ago and then in China, India, and Southeast Asia 5,000 years ago. Another wave of urbanization began 4,000 to 2,500 years ago in Mesoamerica, the Andes mountains of South America, and sub-Saharan Africa. There was no single factor that made a city develop, but location certainly mattered. A city might sit at a good spot for agriculture, trade, or defense.Living in a city generally meant living in crowded conditions in which disease spread faster. On average, people in cities died earlier than those in rural areas. So why would anyone choose to live in a city? There are a few reasons. Diseases or not, cities provide safety. Walls and soldiers protected people from enemies, bandits, and wild animals. Like today, young people moved from rural areas to cities in search of money or jobs. Urban areas offer wider employment opportunities, while rural communities had few options besides farming.Around the world, cities only kept growing. By 1200 BCE, China had some of the world's largest, with Anyang in the Yellow River Valley housing as many as 200,000 people. By 100 CE, Rome was the largest city in the world, with over a million people.Urban hierarchy: Organizing citiesAn essential part of urbanization was the creation of hierarchies. A hierarchy is a social system in which people are ranked into different social levels. The very word civilization, which comes from the Latin word
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader96for citizen, implies a hierarchy. It suggests that city people are "civilized" by definition, and rural people are not. So the hierarchy starts by placing non-city folks at the bottom. But inside the city walls, there are far more levels. Cities maintained complex social hierarchies to keep things operating smoothly and to convince—or even force—people to do their jobs. Priests convinced people that the gods wanted the king to be king, and soldiers enforced the king's decisions.Cities required the invention ofmany new technologies. With more people living together on less land, city-dwellers needed new ways to feed everyone, store food, defend the city, and keep it clean. People developed new architectural methods, built sewers, and even installed running water. Canals and irrigation improved transportation and farming. Aqueducts and underground water tunnels brought clean water from distant mountains. Division of labor: Job specialization in citiesEvery city ever built relied on the availability of food. If a society can't produce enough food, it can't support a bunch of people who don't farm. Farmers need to produce a surplus of food—that is, more food than they and their family need. Having a surplus of food frees up some people from farming and allows themto take up other occupations. This is how you get laborers, scribes, soldiers, and kings. Each occupies a different level in the hierarchy, and each gets different amounts or types of food. Cities were organized and made possible by this division of labor.Cities connected people through their work. It takes complicated networks of labor for cities to run. In a city, everybody relies on other people in order to live. A shoemaker, for example, needs food from farmers from the countryside, leather from cowherds, protection from soldiers, and merchants to distribute his product. On the other hand, all those people need shoes from the shoemaker. In smaller rural villages, people were often more self-sufficient. They did not rely on others to the same extent. Cities reorganized community structures. In villages and towns, where people lived was determined by their family group. In cities, where people lived depended on the work they did. Urban divisions of labor allowed cities to be productive. However, cities still depended on farms and villages. As cities grew, the rural areas around them were pressured to produce more food. When city rulers grew powerful, a networked hierarchy emerged. Cities were at the top, followed by towns, villages, and rural areas. As cities grew, rulers often conquered neighboring lands for the sole purpose of increasing agricultural productivity.Urban archipelago: Cities build networksCities connected the world. As some places got better at producing particular things, cities traded more with each other. Different crops and animals were available in different places. If your city had too little wheat, you could trade some of your wool for another city's surplus of food. Luxuries were also traded across the networks linking cities. Forexample, the Standard of Ur in the image below is from the Sumerian city of Ur and was made sometime around 2500 BCE. It is evidence of just how far ancient trade networks extended. The artist used lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, red marble from India, andseashells from the Persian Gulf.Conclusion: Rural-urban divide?This article started with a discussion of the enduring divide between city and country. Ancient and modern writers all talk about urban and rural life as though they are distinct and separate. But if you've been reading
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader97this article carefully, you might already be questioning that view. The truth is, city and country have always been deeply connected. Each has always depended on the other, and each is part of the same system.Growth of Cities(850L)Bennett SherryEver since there have been cities, people have been singing their praises. Ancient Greek, Roman, and Chinese writers repeatedly ranked city life above life in the countryside. Cities were often portrayed as sites of learning, while country life was seen as uncivilized. However, many writers also noted the problems of city life. They saw cities as lawless and immoral.For almost 6,000 years, people have divided their world between the urban life of the city and the rural life of the country. Life in the city is seen as civilized, but also immoral. Life in the country is seen as uncivilized, but also pure and unspoiled. Even today, in 21st-century America, newspapers are filled with articles about the "rural-urban divide."In 3000 BCE, the largest city in the world was the Mesopotamian city of Uruk. It had a population of about 50,000 people. Today, there are almost 50 cities in the world with more than 10 million people. Tokyo alone has more people than the entire world population in 3000 BCE. Over time, cities have spread everywhere and have grown enormously. Love them or hate them, they have profoundly changed human society and the ways we live together.The first citiesThe world's first cities developed independently in different parts of the world. They first sprang up in Mesopotamia and Egypt around 6,000 years ago. The next string of cities arose in China, India, and Southeast Asia 5,000 years ago. Another wave of urbanization began 4,000 to 2,500 years ago in Mesoamerica, the Andes mountains of South America, and sub-Saharan Africa. There was no single cause that made a city develop. However, location certainly mattered. A city might sit at a good spot for agriculture, trade, or defense.Living in a city generally meant living in crowded conditions in which disease spread faster. On average, people in cities died earlier than those in rural areas. So why would anyone choose to live in a city? There are a few reasons. Diseases or not, cities provide safety. Walls and soldiers protected people from enemies, bandits, and wild animals. Like today, young people moved from rural areas to cities in search of money or jobs. Rural communities offered little work other than farming.Around the world, cities only kept growing. By 1200 BCE, China had some of the world's largest. Anyang in China's Yellow River Valley housed as many as 200,000 people. By 100 CE, Rome was the largest city in the world, with over a million people. Urban hierarchy: Organizing citiesHierarchies were a key part of urbanization. A hierarchy is a social system in which people are ranked into different social levels. The hierarchies of cities placed rural people below city people. But inside a city, there were far more levels. Complicated social hierarchies kept things running smoothly. They served to convince—or even force—people to do their jobs. Priests convinced people that the gods wanted the king to be king, and soldiers enforced the king's decisions.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader98Cities required the invention of many new technologies. With more people living together on less land, city-dwellers needed new ways to feed everyone, store food, defend the city, and keep it clean. People developed new kinds of buildings. They built sewers and even installed running water. Canals and irrigation improved transportation and farming. Aqueducts and underground water tunnels brought clean water from distant mountains. Division of labor: Job specialization in citiesEvery city ever built relied on the availability of food. If a society can't produce enough food, it can't support a large number of people who don't farm. Farmers need to produce a surplus of food—that is, more food than they and their family need. Having a surplus of food frees up some people from farming and allows them to take up other occupations. This is how you get laborers, scribes, soldiers, and kings. Each occupies a different level in the hierarchy. Cities depended on this division of labor.In a city, everybody relies on other people in order to live. This connects people toeach other. A shoemaker, for example, needs food from farmers, leather from cowherds, protection from soldiers, and merchants to distribute his product. On the other hand, all those people need shoes from the shoemaker. In smaller rural villages, people were often more self-sufficient. They did not rely on others as much as city people did. In villages and towns, where people lived was determined by their family group. Its cities, where people lived depended on the kind of work they did. Urban divisions of labor allowed cities to be productive. However, cities still depended on farms and villages. As cities grew, the rural areas around them were pressured to produce more food. City rulers often conquered neighboring lands just to be able to increase agricultural productivity. Urban archipelago: Cities build networksCities connected the world. As some places got better at producing particular things, cities traded more with each other. Different crops and animals were found in different places. If your city had too little wheat, you could trade some of your wool for another city's surplus of food. Luxury items were also traded. For example, the Standard of Ur in the picture below is from the Sumerian city of Ur and was made sometime around 2500 BCE. It shows just how far ancient trade networks extended. The artist used lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, red marble from India, and seashells from the Persian Gulf.Conclusion: Rural-urban divide?This article started with a discussion of the longstanding divide between city and country. Ancient and modern writers all talk about urban and rural life as though they were two completely separate things. But if you've been reading this article carefully, you might already be questioning that view. The truth is, city andcountry have always been deeply connected. Each has always depended on the other. Each is part of the same system.Growth of Cities (730L)Bennett SherryEver since there have been cities, people have been celebrating them. Ancient Greek, Roman, and Chinese writers ranked city life above country life. Cities were portrayed as sites of learning. Meanwhile, the countryside was seen as uncivilized. However, many writers also noted the problems of city life.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader99For almost 6,000 years, people have divided their world between the urban life of the city and the rural life of the country. Life in the city is seen as civilized, but also immoral. Life in the country is seen as uncivilized, but also unspoiled. Today in the United States, people still often talk about a"rural-urban divide." Country people are considered to be very different from city people.In 3000 BCE, the largest city in the world was the Mesopotamian city ofUruk. It had a population of about 50,000 people. Today, there are almost 50 cities in the world with more than 10 million people. Over time, cities have spread everywhere and have grown enormously. They have profoundly changed human society and the ways we live together.The first citiesThe world's first cities sprang up in Mesopotamia and Egypt around 6,000 years ago. Then came cities in China, India, and Southeast Asia. These first arose 5,000 years ago. Another wave of urbanization began around 4,000 years ago. It led to cities in Mesoamerica, South America, and sub-Saharan Africa.There wasno single cause that made a city develop. However, location certainly mattered. Cities developed in areas that were well-suited for farming or trade. Or, they arose in places that were easy to defend from enemies.Cities were more crowded than the countryside. As a result, diseases spread faster in cities. On average, people in cities died earlier than those in rural areas. So why would anyone choose to live in a city? There are a few reasons. Apart from diseases, cities provide safety. Walls and soldiers protected people from enemies, bandits, and wild animals. Like today, young people moved from rural areas to cities in search of money or jobs. Rural communities offered little work other than farming.Around the world, cities only kept growing. By 1200 BCE, China had some of the world's largest. Anyang in China's Yellow River Valley housed as many as 200,000 people. By 100 CE, Rome was the largest city in the world, with over a million people.Urban hierarchy: Organizing citiesHierarchies were a key part of city life. A hierarchy is a social system in which people are ranked into different levels. The hierarchies of cities placed rural people below city people. But inside a city, there were far more levels. Complicated social hierarchies kept things running smoothly. They helped to ensure that people would do their jobs. Priests convinced people that the gods wanted the king to be king. Soldiers enforced the king's decisions.The growth of cities led to many new inventions. With more people living together on less land, city-dwellers needed new ways to feed everyone. They needed to be able to store food, defend the city, and keep it clean. People developed new kinds of buildings. They built sewers and even installed running water. Canals and irrigation improved transportation and farming. Aqueducts and underground water tunnels brought clean water from distant mountains.Division of labor: Job specialization in citiesEvery city ever built needed to have enough available food. If a society can't produceenough food, it can't support a large number of people who don't farm. Farmers need to produce a surplus of food. In other words, they have to produce more food than they and their family need. Having a surplus of food frees up
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader100some people from farming. It allows them to take up other jobs. This is how you get laborers, writers, soldiers, and kings.In a city, everybody needs other people in order to live. This connects people to each other. A shoemaker, for example, needs leather from cowherds, protection from soldiers, and merchants to distribute his product. On the other hand, all those people need shoes from the shoemaker.However, cities also depend on farms and villages. As cities grew, the rural areas around them were forced to produce more food. Often, rural areas were conquered by cities just so more food could be grown. This meant people in the city could have steady access to food without having to grow it themselves. They could focus on new jobs and building trade networks. Urban archipelago: Cities build networksCities connected the world. As some places got better at producing particular things, cities traded more with each other. Different crops and animals were found in different places. If your city had too little wheat, you could tradesome of your wool for another city's surplus of food. Luxury items were also traded. Consider, for example, the Standard of Ur in the picture below. It was made sometime around 2500 BCE in the Sumerian city of Ur. It shows just how far ancient trade routes stretched. The artist used materials from all over. The lapis lazuli was from Afghanistan. The red marble was from India. The seashells came from the Persian Gulf.Conclusion: Rural-urban divide?Ancient and modern writers all talk about urban and rural life as though they were two completely separate things. But is this really true? If you've been reading this article carefully, you might already be questioning that view. The truth is, city and country have always been deeply connected. Each has always depended on the other. Each is part of the same system.Growth of Cities (590L)Bennett SherryMany people love city life. This has been true since the time of the very first cities. Ancient Greek, Roman, and Chinese writers ranked city life above country life. For them, cities were places of learning. They saw the countryside as uncivilized. Still, many writers did note the problems of city life. Some preferred country living. For them, the countryside was unspoiled compared to the city.For almost 6,000 years, people have divided their world between the urban life of the city and the rural life of the country. The two are usually seen as separate. Today, this is still true. Americans often talk about a "rural-urban divide." Country people are thought to be very different from city people.In 3000 BCE, the largest city in the world was the Mesopotamian city of Uruk. It had a population of about 50,000 people. Today, there are almost 50 cities in the world with more than 10 million people. Over time, cities have spread everywhere. They have profoundly changed the ways we live together.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader101The first citiesThe world's first cities were in Mesopotamia and Egypt. They first appeared around 6,000 years ago. Then came cities in China, India, and Southeast Asia. These arose 5,000 years ago. Another wave of urbanization began around 4,000 years ago. It led to cities in the Americas and sub-Saharan Africa. There was no single cause that made a city develop. But location certainly mattered. Cities developed in areas that were well-suited for farming or trade. Or, they arose in places that were easy to defend from enemies.Cities were more crowded than the countryside. As a result, diseases spread faster in cities. On average, people in cities died earlier than those in rural areas. So why would anyone choose to live in a city? There are a few reasons. Apart from diseases, cities provide safety. Walls and soldiers protected people from enemies, bandits, and wild animals. Like today, young people moved from rural areas to cities to look for work. Rural communities offered little work other than farming.Around the world, cities only kept growing. By 1200 BCE, China had some of the world's largest. Anyang housed as many as 200,000 people. By 100 CE, Rome was the largest city in the world. It had over a million people. Urban hierarchy: Organizing citiesHierarchies were a key part of city life. A hierarchy is a social system in which people are ranked into different levels. The hierarchies of cities kept things running smoothly. They helped ensure that people would do their jobs. Priests convinced people that the gods wanted the king to be king. Soldiers enforced the king's decisions.The growth of cities led to many new inventions. People developed new kinds of buildings. They came up with new ways to store food. They built sewers. They even installed running water. Division of labor: Job specialization in citiesPeople in cities do not grow their own food. They depend on farmers who live outside the city. These farmers need to grow a surplus of food. In other words, they have to grow more food than they and their family need. Having a surplus of food frees up some people from farming. It allows them to take up other jobs. This is how you get writers, soldiers, and kings. As cities grew, many conquered nearby rural areas. Farmers were forced to grow more and more food to feed people in the city. People in the city could focus on other jobs. They could trade with other people for what they needed.In a city, everybody needs other people in order to live. This connects people to each other. A shoemaker, for example, needs leather from cowherds. He needs merchants to distribute his product. He needs protection from soldiers. On the other hand, all those people need shoes from the shoemaker. Urban archipelago: Cities build networksCities connected the world too. As some places got better at making particular things, cities traded more with each other. Different crops and animals were found in different places. If your city had too little wheat, you could trade for it. You could send some of your wool for another city's surplus of food.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader102Conclusion: Rural-urban divide?People often talk about urban and rural life as though they were two completely separate things. But the truth is, they're not. As you have seen, city and country have always been deeply connected. Each has always depended on the other. Each is part of the same system.Ancient Agrarian Societies: Shang Dynasty ChinaTraditionally, the Shang Dynasty is viewed as the second dynasty of Ancient China. But it's the first dynasty for which we have archaeological records. Its characteristics make it unique and the basis for Chinese society for thousands of years.Ancient Agrarian Societies: Shang Dynasty China (1060L)Bridgette Byrd O’ConnorIntroductionChinese society has a long history stretching back over 4000 years. Both Paleolithic and Neolithic groups lived here for centuries before the domestication of animals and the invention of farming.Early farming communities almost always grew up along river valleys. Here people could access fresh water for drinking, bathing, irrigating crops, transportation, and for fertile soil. The earliest farming communities in China were founded along the Huang He (Yellow River) in the north. Chinese dynasties (rulers that passed their right to rule down through their family line) controlled much of this area. Pastoralists, whom the Chinese agrarian communities referred to as "barbarians", lived in large areas to the north and west.Shang DynastyThe first dynasty mentioned in Chinese historical sources is the Xia. They are said to have ruled c. 2070 to 1600 BCE. However, there is no archaeological evidence to support the existence of this dynasty. So, most historians refer to the Shang as China's first dynasty. The Shang ruled from 1600 to 1046 BCE. There is archaeological and historical evidence for this period. This includes Chinese histories written from the fifth to first century BCE and artifacts found within walled cities and tombs dating to the Shang Dynasty.54The farming society that began and flourished under the Shang Dynasty grew a variety of grains and crops. They also bred domestic animals and hunted. They grew some rice in this area during the Shang, but not like the full-scale growing of rice in the south. Shang society, like most early farming areas, was divided into different classes of people. Rulers (kings) and the wealthy had the most status, followed by the military and bureaucrats. Next came artisans and skilled workers such as craftspeople and finally the peasants, who were usually farmers. There is evidence that some peasants, such as servants, might have been treated asslaves. 54Historical sources include The Book of Documents, The Bamboo Annals, andThe Records of the Grand Historian. Archaeological evidence has been found in numerous locations including at Yinxu (modern-day Anyang) where the most intact tomb was excavated (Tomb 5 or the Tomb of Lady Fu Hao).
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader103Some servants were buried alongside the wealthy. Archaeologists and historians theorize that these must have been slaves that were tied to or owned by the wealthy and powerful.Writing and spiritual beliefsThe Shang kings were also considered to have the right to rule from the gods of Ancient China. Kings made laws and commanded the military. They even performed sacred rituals such as communicating with spirits. Some of the Shang kings' first wives and consorts also had power. There is evidence that at least one mistress, Lady Fu Hao, led her own army into battle and conducted sacrifices to the gods and ancestors.Most of the evidence for these sacrifices and communications with the spiritual world come from thousands of oracle bones found by archaeologists. The Chinese believed in a mixture of animism (the belief that objects, places and creatures have spirits) and other spiritual practices including honoring ancestors. When a family member died, they became a part of the spirit world. The living often called upon their ancestors for help and guidance. One way people communicated with their ancestors was through the use of oracle bones. Questions were written or scratched onto a bone or shell by a shaman or diviner, someone who could communicate with the gods. These bones and shells were then heated until they cracked. The diviner would read the cracks and provide the person with an answer to their question. Toward the end of the Shang Dynasty, the king became the main shaman, which further strengthened his dual role as a state and spiritual leader.These bones and shells hold an amazing amount of information about early Chinese cultural and spiritual practices. The questions, the people who asked the questions, and the answers are all engraved on these bones. They also provide us with a record of early Chinese writing. Chinese script may have been developed during the Shang Dynasty. This script, composed of pictograms (symbols), closely resembles that of modern Chinese writing. Some of the questions asked about the gender of a royal child or about military battles and strategy.Written observations of the stars and sky from this time included records of eclipses and solstices. This information was used to construct a solar calendar of 365 days, as opposed to the 354-day lunar calendar. This helped farmers determine when to plant and harvest crops. They also wrote records for farming (harvests and surpluses), trade (balances and debts), and for taxation.Cities, trade, and cultureThe Shang kings foundedmany cities throughout the region. Some of these were walled in order to protect the citizens from outside invasions. Buildings found within the city walls were erected on large areas of "stamped Earth" where the soil was compacted into a foundation to support wooden structures. This type of construction would be similar to today's building technique of laying down a concrete slab upon which to build a home. The walled city of Erligang (modern-day Zhengzhou), which was excavated in the 1950s CE, had walls that were about 10m (32ft) high and 20m (65ft) thick. These walls protected an area that was over 3km2(1.2 miles2).The Shang period is also known for bronze casting and the creation of bronze tools, weapons, and crafts. Bronze foundries and thousands of bronze artifacts have been found in tombs and dig sites across the Shang region. While bronze was used to increase harvests and make weapons, implements made from stone, bone, and jade were also widely used. Most craftwork would have been done in the home.But as cities grew, early workshops were founded, and some people moved to urban areas to work. Musical instruments, such as
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader104flutes and drums, have also been found. These instruments indicate that the Shang Dynasty enjoyed cultural activities.Many items were found in tombs of the wealthy and powerful. This indicates that the Shang strongly believed in the afterlife. Tools, weapons, instruments, and beauty accessories were placed within the tomb to aid those who crossed over to the spiritual realm. Some of these tombs also contained things like cowry shells, which indicates that trade took place between the Shang and members of coastal regions. The Shang community also used bronze-wheeled chariots. This indicates that the Shang interacted with the steppe people to the west, who were skilled in using horses and chariots. The Shang were very accomplished in bronze making and early silk textile production. These goods would have been sought after by other communities in the region. East Asian networks of exchange, therefore, extended beyond the walled cities and areas controlled by the Shang to encompass nearby farming and pastoralist areas.Items dated to the Shang Dynasty have been found in a number of locations. This provides us with a lot of information about the period. In 1976, archaeologists found a tomb in the Shang city of Yinxu (modern-day Anyang) that had not been looted. The tomb of Lady Fu Hao was completely intact. It revealed a lot of information about life for upper class women during the Shang Dynasty. Lady Fu Hao (c. 1250 BCE) was a consort (one of many wives) of King Wu Ding. Oracle bones found from this period tell us a lot about her life. She was mentioned on close to 200 Shang-era oracle bones. Her tomb housed her body and the bodies of16 servants and six dogs. In addition, there were almost 500 bronze pieces, including 130 weapons. Her tomb also held over 700 jade items, stone objects, five ivory pieces, over 500 bone ornaments, and 6,900 cowry shells. Inscriptions on the oracle bones reveal that she was a military general, who led her own troops into battle. This is also supported by the large number of bronze weapons found in her tomb. She was also seen as a spiritual guide who could perform sacred sacrifices and ask ancestors for aid. This type of privilege and prestige was unusual for women during this time. But it seems that because of her skills and her relationship with the king, she was viewed as a powerful figure.From the Shang to the Zhou DynastyThe Shang Dynasty ruled a large section of East Asia for over 500 years. Eventually they were challenged by the Zhou, another powerful group located in the plains of Eastern China. The Zhou overthrew the last Shang king at the Battle of Muye in 1046 BCE. King Wu of the Zhou claimed that the Shang king's corrupt ways and his focus on pleasure at the expense of his people meant that he was no longer worthy to govern. Wu claimed that the Shang king had lost the Mandate of Heaven (tian ming). This meant that the ruler had lost his virtue or morality and as a result, he no longer had the right to rule. This claim allowed Zhou to justify overthrowing the Shang dynasty that no longer provided for the people. The Zhou firmly established its base in the eastern portion of the Yellow River Valley. Over time they consolidated more territory to the west. In fact, the Zhou became the longest reigning dynasty in Chinese history, controlling a large area of modern-day China for almost 800 years.SourcesBenjamin, Craig. “East Asia.” Big HistoryProject, 2014. Retrieved from https://school.bighistoryproject.com/pages/console#media/8e80852c-15cc-45e4-988b-333e2e85752aEbrey, Patricia Buckley. Chinese Civilization: A Sourcebook, 2nd edition. New York: The Free Press, 1993.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader105Mark, Emily. “Shang Dynasty.” Ancient History Encyclopedia. 2016. Retrieved from https://www.ancient.eu/Shang_Dynasty/Author BioBridgette Byrd O’Connor holds a DPhil in history from the University of Oxford and has taught Big History, world history, and AP US government and politics for the past 10 years at the high school level. In addition, Bridgette has been a freelance writer and editor for the Big History Project and the Crash Course world history and US history curricula.Ancient Agrarian Societies: Shang Dynasty China (970L)Bridgette Byrd O’ConnorIntroductionChinese society has a long history stretching back more than 4,000 years. Early Chinese farming communities almost always grew up along river valleys. The earliest were founded along the Huang He River (Yellow River) in the north. Here people could access fresh water for drinking, bathing, irrigating crops, transportation, and for fertile soil. Chinese dynasties—rulers that passed their right to rule down through their family line—controlled much of this area.Shang dynastyThe first dynasty mentioned in Chinese historical sources is the Xia. They are said to have ruled from about 2070 BCE to 1600 BCE. However, there is no archaeological evidence pointing to the existence of this dynasty.So, most historians refer to the Shang as China's first dynasty55. The Shang ruled from 1600 BCE to 1046 BCE.The farming society that developed under the Shang dynasty grew a variety of grains and crops. Rice was grown, but nowhere near as much as in thesouth. Shang society, like most early farming societies, was divided into different classes of people. Rulers and the wealthy had the highest social position, followed by the military and government officials. Next came skilled workers such as craftspeople and finally the peasants, who were usually farmers. There is evidence that some peasants who acted as servants might have been slaves. At times, servants were buried alongside the wealthy. Historians suspect these people were slaves who were tied to or owned by the wealthy and powerful.Writing and spiritual beliefsThe Chinese believed that the gods had given their kings the right to rule. Kings made laws and commanded the military. They even performed sacred rites such as communicating with spirits.Most of the evidence for these communications with the spirit world comes from the thousands of oracle bones found by archaeologists. The Chinese believed in a mixture of animism—the belief that objects, places, and creatures have spirits—and other spiritual practices, including honoring ancestors. When a family member died, they became a part of the spirit world. The living often called upon their ancestors for 55Historical sources include The Book of Documents, The Bamboo Annals, and The Records of the Grand Historian. Archaeological evidence has been found in locations. At Yinxu (modern-day Anyang), the most undamaged tomb was found (The Tomb of Lady Fu Hao).
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader106help and advice. One way people communicated with their ancestors was through the use of oracle bones. Questions were written or scratched onto a bone by a diviner, someone who could communicate with the spirits. The bone was then heated until it cracked. The diviner would read the cracks and provide the person with an answer to their question. Toward the end of the Shang dynasty, the king became the main diviner, which further strengthened his two-sided role as both a state and a spiritual leader.Surviving oracle bones provide an amazing amount of information about early Chinese culture. The questions,the people who asked the questions, and the answers are all engraved on the bones. The bones also provide us with a record of early Chinese writing. Shang-era script, composed of symbols called pictograms, closely resembles modern Chinese writing. Cities, trade, and cultureThe Shang kings founded many cities throughout the region. Some were walled in order to protect the citizens from outside invasions. The city of Erligang (modern-day Zhengzhou) had walls that were about 32 feet high and 65 feet thick. These walls protected an area of around 1.2 square miles.The Shang period is also known for bronze casting and the creation of bronze tools, weapons, and crafts. While bronze was used to make weapons and farm tools, implements made from stone, bone, and jade were also widely used. Most craftwork would have been done in the home. As cities grew, however, early workshops were founded. The tombs of the wealthy and powerful contained a wide range of items. This suggests that the Shang strongly believed in the afterlife. Tools, weapons, instruments, and beauty accessories were placed within the tomb to aid those who crossed over to the spirit world. Some of these tombs contained things like cowry shells, which indicates that trade took place between the Shang and coastal regions. The Shang community also used bronze-wheeled chariots. This indicates that the Shang interacted with the steppe people to the west, who were skilled in using horses and chariots. The Shang were accomplished in bronze making and early silk textile production. These goods would have been sought after by other communities in the region. East Asian networks of exchange, therefore, extended beyond the areas controlled by the Shang to encompass nearby farming and pastoralist areas.In 1976, archaeologists found a completely preserved tomb in the Shang city of Yinxu (modern-day Anyang). The tomb was the final resting place of Lady Fu Hao. It revealed a lot of information about life for upper-class women during the Shang dynasty. Lady Fu Hao (c. 1250 BCE) was one of the many wives of King Wu Ding. Her tomb housed her body and the bodies of 16 servants and six dogs. In addition, there were almost 500 bronze pieces, including 130 weapons. Her tomb also held more than 700 jade items, stone objects, five ivory pieces, more than 500 bone ornaments, and 6,900 cowry shells. Shang-era oracle bones tell us a lot about Lady Fu Hao's life. She was mentioned on close to 200 bones. The inscriptions reveal that she was a military general who led her own troops into battle. This is supported by the large number of bronze weapons found in her tomb. She was also seen as a spiritual guide who could perform sacred sacrifices and ask ancestors for aid. This type of power and privilege was unusual for women of the time. From the Shang to the Zhou dynastyThe Shang dynasty ruled a large section of East Asia for more than 500 years. Eventually, they were challenged by the Zhou, another powerful group located in the plains of eastern China. The Zhou overthrew
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader107the last Shang king at the Battle of Muye in 1046 BCE. King Wu of the Zhou claimed the Shang king had lost the Mandate of Heaven (tian ming). This meant that the ruler had lost his virtue or morality and as a result, he no longer had the right to rule. Wu declared that the Shang king had lost his God-given right to rule. The Zhou firmly established its base in the eastern portion of the Yellow River Valley. Over time they gained control over more territory to the west. In fact, the Zhou became the longest-ruling dynasty in Chinese history. It controlled a large part of modern-day China for almost 800 years.Ancient Agrarian Societies: Shang Dynasty China (850L)Bridgette Byrd O’ConnorIntroductionChinese society has a long history stretching back more than 4,000 years. Before the rise of cities, small farming communities sprang up. The earliest were founded along the Yellow River in the north of China. Here people could access fresh water for drinking, bathing, irrigating crops, transportation, and for fertile soil.Much of this area was controlled by Chinese dynasties. A dynasty is a succession of rulers that pass their right to rule down through their family line. Dynasties can be short-lived, or they can last for hundreds of years.Shang dynastyHistorians believe the Shang were China's first dynasty. The Shang ruled from 1600 BCE to 1046 BCE. There is archaeological evidence for this period. This includes Chinese histories written from the fifth to first century BCE. Artifacts have been found within walled cities and tombs dating to the Shang Dynasty.56The farming society that developed under the Shang dynasty grew many different kinds of crops. Rice was grown, but nowhere near as much as was grown in the south. Like most early farming societies, Shang society was divided into different classes of people. Rulers and the rich had the highest social position. Under them came the military and government officials. Next came craftspeople and other skilled workers. The lowest level was made up of peasants, who were usually farmers. Some peasants acted as servants, and some of these servants may have been slaves. At times, servants were buried alongside the rich. Most likely, they were killed when their master died, so they could serve their master in the afterlife.Writing and spiritual beliefsThe Chinese believed that the gods had given their kings the right to rule. Kings made laws and commanded the military. They even performed sacred rites such as communicating with spirits.56Historical sources include The Book of Documents, The Bamboo Annals, and The Records of the Grand Historian. Archaeological evidence has been found in many locations. At Anyang, the most undamaged tomb was found. This was the Tomb of Lady Fu Hao.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader108The Shang-era Chinese were animists. They believed that objects, places, and creatures have spirits. They also believed deeply in the importance of honoring ancestors. When a family member died, they became a part of the spirit world. The living often called upon their ancestors for help and advice. One way people communicated with their ancestors was through the use of oracle bones. Questions were written or scratched onto a bone by a diviner. A diviner was someone who could communicate with spirits. The bone was then heated until itcracked. The diviner would read the cracks and provide the person with an answer to their question. Thousands of oracle bones have been found by archaeologists. They provide an amazing amount of information about early Chinese culture. The questions, thepeople who asked the questions, and the answers are all engraved on the bones. The bones also provide us with a record of early Chinese writing. Shang-era script is very similar to modern Chinese writing. Cities, trade, and cultureThe Shang kings founded many cities. Some were walled to protect against invasions. The city of Erligang (modern-day Zhengzhou) had walls that were about 32 feet high and 65 feet thick. These walls protected an area of about 1.2 square miles.The Shang period is also known for bronze casting. Bronze was used to make weapons, farm tools, and many other objects. Stone, bone, and jade were also widely used. Most craftwork would have been done in the home. However, as cities grew, early workshops were founded. The tombs of the richand powerful contained a wide range of items. This suggests that the Shang-era Chinese strongly believed in the afterlife. Tools, weapons, instruments, makeup, and combs were placed within the tomb. They were meant to aid those who had crossed over to thespirit world. Some of these tombs contained things like cowry shells, which indicates that trade took place between the Shang and coastal regions. The Shang community also used chariots. This indicates that the Shang interacted with the steppe people to the west, who were skilled in using horses and chariots. The Shang were accomplished in bronze making and silk production. These goods would have been sought after by other communities in the region. East Asian networks of exchange, therefore, extended beyond the areas controlled by the Shang to encompass nearby farming and pastoralist areas.In 1976, archaeologists found a major tomb in the Shang city of Yinxu (modern-day Anyang). The tomb was the final resting place of Lady Fu Hao (c. 1250 BCE.). Lady Fu Hao was one of the many wives of the Shang king Wu Ding. Her tomb contained her body and the bodies of 16 servants and six dogs. In addition, there were almost 500 bronze pieces, including 130 weapons. Her tomb also held many other objects made of jade, stone, ivory, and bone, along with 6,900 cowry shells. Shang-era oracle bones tell us a lot about Lady Fu Hao's life. She was mentioned on close to 200 bones. The inscriptions reveal that she was a military general, who led her own troops into battle. This is supported by the large number of bronze weapons found in her tomb. She was also seen as a spiritual guide who could perform sacred sacrifices and ask ancestors for aid. Holding such a high position and having so much power was unusual for women of the time.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader109From the Shang to the Zhou dynastyThe Shang dynasty ruled a large section of East Asia for more than 500 years. In 1046 BCE, they fell to the Zhou, another powerful group located in the plains of Eastern China. King Wu of the Zhou claimed that the Shang king had lost the Mandate of Heaven (tian ming). Wu said the king had lost his morals. As a result, he no longer had the right to rule.The Zhou firmly established its base in the eastern part of the Yellow River Valley. Over time they gained control over more territory to the west. In fact, the Zhou became the longest-ruling dynasty in Chinese history. It controlled a large part of modern-day China for almost 800 years.Ancient Agrarian Societies: Shang Dynasty China (730L)Bridgette Byrd O’ConnorIntroductionChina has a long history stretching back more than 4,000 years. Before the rise of cities, small farming communities sprang up. The earliest were founded along the Yellow River in the north of China. The river provided fresh water for drinking, transportation, and growing crops. Much of this area was controlled by Chinese dynasties. A dynasty is a succession of rulers that pass their right to rule down through their family line. Dynasties can last for hundreds of years.Shang dynastyHistorians believe the Shang were China's first dynasty. The Shangruled from 1600 BCE to 1046 BCE. There is archaeological evidence for this period. This includes Chinese histories written from the fifth to first century BCE. Artifacts have been found dating back to the Shang Dynasty.57Like most early farming societies, Shang society was divided into different classes of people. Rulers and the rich had the highest social position. Under them came soldiers and government workers. Next came craftspeople and other skilled workers. The lowest level was made up of peasants, who were usually farmers. Some peasants acted as servants.Some servants might have been slaves. At times, servants were buried alongside the rich. They were killed when their master died so they could serve their master in the afterlife.Writing and spiritual beliefsThe Chinese believed that the gods had given their kings the right to rule. Kings made laws and commanded the army. They also communicated with spirits. These spirit beings provided answers to many kinds of questions.57Historical sources include The Book of Documents, The Bamboo Annals, and The Records of the Grand Historian. Archaeologists have made discoveries at many locations. The Tomb of Lady Fu Hao was found at Anyang. It was the most undamaged tomb to be found.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader110The Chinese of the Shang period were animists. They believed that objects, animals, and places have spirits. They also believed deeply in honoring their ancestors. When someone in a family died, they became a part of the spirit world. The living often called upon their ancestors for help. People communicated with their ancestors through the use of oracle bones. First, they would meet with a diviner. A diviner was someone who could communicate with spirits. A person's question was written or scratched onto a bone by the diviner. The bone was then heated until it cracked. The diviner would read the cracks and provide the person with an answer to their question. Thousands of oracle bones have been dug up across China. They provide an amazing amount of information about early Chinese culture. The questions, the people who asked the questions, and the answers are all recorded on the bones. The positions people held in society are described. All of this shows us a great deal about how people lived. It also shows us what people cared about.Cities, trade, and cultureThe Shang kings founded many cities. Some were walled to protect against invasions. The city of Erligang had walls that were about 32 feet high and 65 feet thick. These walls protected an area of about 1.2 square miles.The Shang period is also known for bronze casting. Bronze was used to make weapons, farm tools, and many other objects. Stone, bone, and jade were also widely used. These artifacts also help historians learn about trade in the Shang dynasty. Cowry shells indicate trade with coastal regions. Chariots indicate interactions with people from the steppe, who were knowledgeable about horses and chariots. It is also likely that other communities wanted to trade with the Shang for their bronze and silk. The Chinese strongly believed in the afterlife. Because of this, tools, weapons, and many other things were placed in the tombs of the rich and powerful. They were meant to aid those who had crossed over to the spirit world. In 1976, archaeologists found a major Shang tomb in the city of Anyang. The tomb was the final resting place of Lady Fu Hao (c. 1250 BCE). Lady Fu Hao was one of the many wives of the Shang king Wu Ding. She was buried with 16 servants and six dogs. There were also thousands of objects in her tomb. They included about 130 weapons. Oracle bones tell us a lot about Lady Fu Hao's life. She was an army general, who led her own troops into battle. She was also a spiritual guide. She performed sacred sacrifices and asked ancestors for aid. It was very unusual for women of her time to hold such a high position. From the Shang to the Zhou dynastyThe Shang dynasty ruled much of East Asia for more than 500 years. In 1046 BCE, they fell to the Zhou. The Zhou were a powerful family group from eastern China. King Wu of the Zhou claimed that the Shang king had lost his morals. As a result, the Shang king lost the Mandate of Heaven (tian ming). This meant the king was no longer fit to rule.The Zhou became the longest-ruling dynasty in Chinese history. It controlled a large part of China for almost 800 years.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader111Ancient Agrarian Societies: Shang Dynasty China (610L)Bridgette Byrd O’ConnorIntroductionChina has a long history stretching back more than 4,000 years. Before the rise of cities, groups of small villages sprang up. These communities were based around farming. The earliest were founded along the Yellow River. The river provided fresh water for drinking, transportation, and growing crops. The Yellow River runs through the north of China. Much of thisarea was controlled by dynasties. A dynasty is a group of rulers who all belong to one family. They pass their right to rule down through their family line. Dynasties can last for hundreds of years.Shang dynastyThe Shang were China's first dynasty. Theyruled from 1600 BCE to 1046 BCE. Archeologists dig up historic artifacts. Many artifacts have been found from the Shang dynasty. This includes Chinese texts from fifth to first centuries BCE.58Shang society was divided into different classes of people. Kings and the rich were at the top. Under them came the soldiers and government workers. Next came craftspeople. The lowest level was made up of peasants. Most peasants were farmers. Others were servants.Some servants may have been slaves. At times, servants were buried with the rich. They were killed when their master died. That way they could serve their master in the afterlife.Writing and spiritual beliefsThe Chinese believed that the gods had given their kings the right to rule. Kings made laws and commanded the army. They also communicated with spirits. These spirit beings provided answers to many kinds of questions.The Chinese of the Shang period were animists. They believed that things, animals, and places have spirits. They also believed deeply in honoring their ancestors. When someone in a family died, they became a part of the spirit world. The living often called upon their ancestors for help. People communicated with their ancestors through oracle bones. First, they would meet with a diviner. A diviner was someone who could communicate with spirits. A person's question was written on a bone by the diviner. The bone was then heated until it cracked. The diviner would read the cracks, and tell the questioner what they meant. The cracks were thought to contain an answer from the ancestor. Thousands of oracle bones survive. They tell us a great deal about early Chinese culture. The questions, the people who asked the questions, and the answers are recorded on the bones.58Historical sources include The Book of Documentsand The Records of the Grand Historian. Archaeologists have made discoveries at many locations. Sometimes, artifacts are damaged. The Tomb of Lady Fu Hao was found at Anyang. It was the most complete tomb found.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader112Cities, trade, and cultureThe Shang kings founded many cities. Some were walled to protect against invaders. The city of Erligang had walls that were about 32 feet high. They were 65 feet thick. The Shang period is also known for bronze-making. Bronze was used to make weapons, farm tools, and many other things. Stone, bone, and jade were also widely used.The Chinese believed deeply in an afterlife. Because of this, tools, weapons, and many other things were placed in tombs. They were meant to help those who had crossed over to the spirit world. These artifacts also help historians learn about trade in the Shang dynasty. Cowry shells indicate trade with coastal regions. Chariots indicate interactions with people from the steppe, who were knowledgeable about horses and chariots. It is also likely that other communities wanted to trade with the Shang for their bronze and silk. A major Shang tomb was uncovered in 1976. It was found in the city of Anyang. The tomb was the final resting place of Lady Fu Hao at around 1250 BCE. FuHao was one of the many wives of King Wu Ding. She also served as an army general. Few women in China had so much power. Lady Fu Hao was buried with 16 servants and six dogs. There were also thousands of objects in her tomb. The items included about 130 weapons. From the Shang to the Zhou dynastyThe Shang dynasty ruled for more than 500 years. In 1046 BCE, it fell to the Zhou. The Zhou were another powerful family group. King Wu of the Zhou said the Shang king was no longer worthy to govern. Wu said theking lost the Mandate of Heaven. This belief gave kings the right to rule. But Wu said the Shang king did not care about his people. This meant the Shang king lost his right to power.The Zhou became the longest-ruling dynasty in Chinese history. It ruledfor almost 800 years.Ancient Agrarian Societies: Nubia and Ancient EgyptThe Nile River Valley is home to one of the most ancient societies. Best known for pyramids and mummies, communities in this area, such as Egypt and Nubia, were founded long before the first pyramid.Ancient Agrarian Societies: Nubia and Ancient Egypt (1060L)Bridgette Byrd O’ConnorIntroductionMost early agrarian (farming) societies developed along river valleys. These valleys provided access to fresh water for humans and animals. They also possessed fertile soil for planting and a water source for both the irrigation of crops and for trade. Early humans had lived in Africa for hundreds of thousands of years as foragers. So why would humans begin to shift from foraging to farming? One reason, especially in this section of Africa, was the impact of naturally occurring climate change. As this area became dryer, fewer resources were available. The regions with the most resources at this time were found along river valleys.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader113The Nile River is the longest river in the world, and this stretch of land provided the necessities required to sustain life.Foraging and pastoral communities lived in this area for centuries before people began planting grains. In fact, the shift from foraging to farming was probably a slow process here. Some communities settled closer to the river and farmed more than those on the outskirts of the river valley. People who stayed in rural areas probably practiced a mix of small-plot farming, foraging, herding, and hunting. Interactions between these communities were common. They also likely shared certain cultural practices such as similar beliefs and languages.Nubia, A-Group culture (c. 3800-2900 BCE)The ancient settlements of Nubia were located in an area south of Upper Egypt in modern-day Sudan. They stretched from the first cataract to the second cataract (shallow areas of the Nile). Some of the earliest farming societies in the Indo-Mediterranean world began in this region of Africa. Archaeologists have called the early inhabitants of Nubia, A-Group culture. Almost 200 sites, mainly cemeteries and some housing sites, have been analyzed. Nubian and early Egyptian artifacts appeared to have many similarities. This indicates that the two societies may have shared many traits like ideas about rulers, written symbols, and artistic features. There is also evidence of established trade networks between Nubia and Egypt. Nubia was located in an area that participated in the flow of goods like ivory from inner Africa to the Mediterranean region.Nubians lived in stone houses. Archaeologists have found evidence of Nubian storage pits, flint deposits, stone tools, grindstones, gold, copper, and pottery. Some of these artifacts came fromlocal sources while others came from Egypt and beyond. Nubians also buried their dead in a similar fashion to the Egyptians. Both societies buried bodies facing west and left offerings to guide the dead to the afterlife. Lapis lazuli, a semi-precious, deep blue stone, has also been found. This rock was used in the creation of the female figure shown on the right. These figures may have been used as fertility symbols or for religious purposes. (Very much like the Venus of Willendorf discussed in Era 2). Itis interesting that the nearest quarry (mine) for this rock was in modern-day Afghanistan. These mines are thousands of miles from the Nile River Valley where these artifacts were found. Using this foreign stone in the Nubian-Egyptian region would indicate that the figurine was a special item. These figurines would only have been buried with someone of high social standing.Some graves of people with higher social status also included the bodies of cattle. This shows the importance of this animal to a semi-agricultural and pastoral community. These graves also held pottery, beads, gold, ivory, incense burners, sculptures and seals. Maceheads, ornaments placed on maces or staffs, have also been found. These maceheads would have been used by those in powerfulpositions. These grave items also indicate that the cultures of Nubia and Egypt were connected. Some of the decorations on these artifacts have common themes.Nubian women may have been more highly regarded than women in other early agrarian societies. Archaeologists have uncovered female burials with important grave goods, which provide some insight into the importance of women. Women were viewed as givers of life, and in many cases, experts in agriculture. Nubian women also held an important role in religious rituals. Their role was especially important in rituals related to birth (creation), fertility, death and rebirth. Both Nubian and Ancient Egyptian religion viewed the goddess Isis in a similar way.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader114Ancient Egypt—Predynastic, Protodynastic, and EarlyDynastic Periods (c. 6000-2700 BCE)We usually think of pyramids and mummies when we think of Ancient Egyptian culture. The pyramids are huge structures that housed the dead and have been preserved for millennia. But Egyptian history began long before the pyramids were built. It began long before the reign of King Tut and Cleopatra, and even the mummification process.The Ancient Egypt of mummies and pyramids is usually divided into periods ruled by different dynasties—lines of rulers in the same family—who ruled as pharaohs. These dynasties really began to rule Egypt around 3000 BCE. In this article, we are mainly focusing on:•the period beforedynasties of kings ruling a unified Egypt—called the Predynastic Period (about 6000-3200 BCE)•the period in which a centralized kingdom began to emerge—called the Protodynastic Period (around 3200-3000 BCE)•the earliest pharaohs—known as the Early Dynastic Period (3000-2700 BCE)The early history of Egypt covers the transition to agriculture and the foundation of societies governed by kings. There are still things we do not know about this ancient history. After more than a century of excavations (digs to search for ancient artifacts) in Egypt, we might expect to have more detail. But many of these early sites lie under the current water level and have proven difficult areas in which to dig. We do know that early agrarian communities existed along the Nile River Valley. These communities were located north of the first cataract (Upper Egypt) and the Nile Delta (Lower Egypt). Like many other areas, the shift from foraging to farming was a gradual one. In Egypt, it appears that the domestication of animals came before the founding of complex farming societies. Some evidence also suggests that certain crops grown in Egyptwere first farmed around the Fertile Crescent (Mesopotamia). This process took about 2000-2500 years and may have been helped by climate change. As a result, a drying period occurred, which pushed people closer to the resources of the Nile.Similar to Nubia, Egypt appears to have been connected to other areas of Southwest Asia. We know this from artifacts found in burial sites from these foreign areas. Lower Egypt had fertile soil and access to networks of trade and interaction with the Mediterranean and Southwest Asian. As a result, this section of Egypt grew in the number of settlements, population, and power.Throughout the predynastic period, rulers of different communities began to amass more and more power, and contact between communities grew. However, some rural communities were relatively self-sufficient. They had contact with others on a more local scale than those who lived near the main centers of society along the Nile. As connections between these cultures grew along the Nile, shared beliefs and places for rituals became more common. An example of these shared spiritual places was the city of Abydos. This city housed the dead (necropolis) of Nubia and Naqada. Later Abydos was also chosen as the burial place for Egyptian royalty.Some time around3200 BCE, a ruler managed to take control of the entirety of Upper Egypt, in the south. He was known as Scorpion I, the first of two Scorpion kings of Upper Egypt. These kings preceded King Narmer, who is thought to be the monarch who unified Lower and Upper Egypt under one ruler. According to later historical sources (c. 1900 BCE), Menes was said to have been the king who united Egypt. However, after archaeologists discovered the Narmer Palette, a stone carving, historians began to revise this timeline. This palette depicts the year and name of King Narmer and shows this king conquering both lands to unite them
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader115as one. Some archaeologists have proposed that Narmer and Menes might have been the same person. Others have speculated that Menes was a later kingalso known as Hor-Aha. Regardless, the unification of Egypt marks a significant point in Egyptian history. This is when kings began consolidating power and the region grew into an ancient superpower. It also begins the Early Dynastic Period in Egyptian history.The unification of Egypt is also when hieroglyphic writing became more common. First used to keep records, this script became the written language of Egypt. Hieratic script was used for recordkeeping and hieroglyphics were reserved for religious purposes. There are also a number of similarities between the ancient scripts of Egypt and Nubia. This may indicate that they shared a common language, although there may have been regional dialects.Unification of EgyptThe early kings of Egypt maintained a dual role as both god and king. In much the same way, Egyptian society was seen as a society of opposing forces. Egyptians incorporated this concept of duality in all aspects of their lives. This included the land, the rulers, the notion of life and afterlife, and the complimentary nature of men and women. This idea of harmony between male and female helped elevate Egyptian women to a status unknown in other ancient agrarian societies. As in Nubia, women held important roles in religious rituals and agricultural production. Egyptian women also received equal pay for equal work and owned their own businesses and land. This was not true in most areas of the world at this time. In fact, most industrialized areas of the world today still have not achieved equal pay for equal work.SourcesFletcher, Joann. “From Warrior Women to Female Pharaohs: Careers for Women in Ancient Egypt.” BBC, 2011. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians/women_01.shtml.Fort Drum Cultural Resource and the Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands (CEMML), Colorado State University. “Pre-Dynastic & Early Dynastic Period (5,500-2,700 BC). Cultural Property Training Resource: Egypt (Exercise Bright Start), United States Department of Defense, U.S. Central Command. Retrieved from https://www.cemml.colostate.edu/cultural/09476/egypt02-02enl.html.Gatto, Maria Carmelo. “The Nubian A-Group: a reassessment. Archéonil 16 (2006): 61-76. Servajean, Frédéric. “Duality.” UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology 1, no. 1 (2006): 1-5.The Oriental Institute. “The History of Ancient Nubia.” The University of Chicago, 2018. Retrieved from https://oi.uchicago.edu/museum-exhibits/history-ancient-nubiaOLD.Wenke, Robert J. “Egypt: Origins of Complex Societies.” Annual Review of Anthropology 18 (1989): 129-55.Author BioBridgette Byrd O’Connor holds a DPhil in history from the University of Oxford and has taught Big History, world history, and AP US government and politics for the past 10 years at the high school level. In addition, Bridgette has been a freelance writer and editor for the Big History Project and the Crash Course world history and US history curricula.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader116Ancient Agrarian Societies: Nubia and Ancient Egypt (970L)Bridgette Byrd O’ConnorIntroductionEarly humans lived in Africa for hundreds of thousands of years as foragers. So, why would humans begin to shift from foraging to farming? Some of the answers are found along the Nile. The Nile River is thelongest river in the world, and this stretch of land provided the necessities required to sustain life. It also connected Egypt with Nubia, its southern neighbor.Nubia, A-Group culture (c. 3800-2900 BCE)The ancient settlements of Nubia were located in southern Egypt and modern-day Sudan. Some of the earliest farming societies began in this region of Africa. Archaeologists have referred to the early inhabitants of Nubia as A-Group culture. They have analyzed almost 200 sites, mainly cemeteries and some housing sites. Nubian and early Egyptian artifacts indicate the two societies may have shared many traits. These traits include ideas about rulers, written symbols, and artistic features. There is also evidence of established trade networks between Nubia andEgypt. Archaeologists have unearthed Nubian storage pits. They have also discovered stone tools, grindstones, gold, copper, and pottery. Some of these artifacts were made from local sources while others were brought from Egypt and beyond. Nubian and Egyptian burials were also similar. Both societies buried bodies facing west and left offerings to guide the dead to the afterlife. Lapis lazuli, a semi-precious, deep blue stone, has also been found in both Nubian and Egyptian sites. This rock was used in the creation of the female figure shown on the right. These figures may have been used as fertility symbols or for religious purposes (very much like the Venus of Willendorf discussed in Era 2). It is interesting that the nearest quarry (mine) for this rock was in modern-day Afghanistan. These mines are thousands of miles from the Nile River Valley where these artifacts were found. Some graves of people with higher social status also included the bodies of cattle. This finding shows the importance of this animal to a semi-agricultural and pastoral community. These graves also held artifacts that indicate that the cultures of Nubia and Egypt were connected. Some decorations on these artifacts have common themes.Nubian women may have been more highly regarded than women in other early farming societies. Women were viewed as givers of life and experts in agriculture. Nubian women also held an important role in religious rituals related to birth (creation), fertility, death, and rebirth. Archaeologists have uncovered female burials with important grave goods. These goods offer insight into the importance of women in Nubian culture. Ancient Egypt—predynastic, protodynastic, and early dynastic periods (c. 6000-2700 BCE)We usually picture pyramids and mummies when we think of ancient Egypt. The pyramids are huge structures that housed the dead and have been preserved for millennia. But Egyptian history began long before the pyramids were built.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader117Ancient Egypt is usually divided into periods ruled by different dynasties—lines of rulers in the same family—who ruled as pharaohs. These dynasties really began to rule Egypt around 3000 BCE. In this article, we are mainly focusing on:•The period beforedynasties of kings ruling a unified Egypt. This is called the Predynastic Period (about 6000-3200 BCE)•The period in which a centralized kingdom began to emerge. This is called the Protodynastic Period (around 3200-3000 BCE)•The earliest pharaohs. This is known as the Early Dynastic Period (3000-2700 BCE)The early history of Egypt covers the transition to agriculture and the foundation of societies governed by kings. There are still things we do not know about this ancient history. We do know that early agrarian communities existed along the Nile River Valley. Like many other areas, the shift from foraging to farming was a gradual one. It took about 2,000-2,500 years and may have been driven by a changing climate. A drying period occurred, which pushed people closer to the life-giving resources of the Nile.Like Nubia, Egypt appears to have been connected to other areas of Southwest Asia. We know this from artifacts from these foreign areas found in burial sites. Lower Egypt had fertile soil and access to networks of trade and interaction with the Mediterranean and Southwest Asia. As a result, this section of Egypt grew in population, wealth, and power. Throughout the predynastic period, rulers of different communities gained more power. As a result, contact between communities grew. The sharing of beliefs and places for rituals became more common. An example of these shared spiritual places was the city of Abydos. This city was a necropolis, housing the dead of Nubia. Later, Abydos was also chosen as the burial place for Egyptian royalty.The unification of Egypt marks a significant point in Egyptian history. Egyptian kings consolidated power and the region grew into an ancient superpower. This began the Early Dynastic Period in Egyptian history.The unification of Egypt is also when hieroglyphic writing became more common. First used to keep records, this script became the written language of Egypt. Hieratic script was used for recordkeeping and hieroglyphics were reserved for religious purposes. There are also a number of similarities between the ancient scripts of Egypt and Nubia. These similarities indicate they may have shared a common language.Unification of EgyptThe early kings of Egypt maintained a dual role as both god and human ruler. In much the same way, Egyptian society was seen as a society of opposing forces. Egyptians incorporated this concept of duality in all aspects of their lives. This included the notion of life and afterlife and the complementary nature of men and women. This idea of harmony between male and female helped elevate Egyptian women insociety. As in Nubia, women held important roles in religious rituals and agriculture. Egyptian women also received equal pay for equal work and owned their own businesses and land. This was not true in most areas of the world at this time. In fact, most societies today have yet to achieve equal legal and economic status between women and men.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader118Ancient Agrarian Societies: Nubia and Ancient Egypt (840L)Bridgette Byrd O’ConnorIntroductionEarly humans lived in Africa for hundreds of thousands of years as foragers. So, why would humans begin to shift from foraging to farming? Some of the answers are found along the Nile. The Nile River is the longest river in the world. Its waters and the land along it provided the necessities required to sustain life. It also connected Egypt with Nubia, its southern neighbor.Nubia, A-Group culture (c. 3800-2900 BCE)The ancient settlements of Nubia were located where Sudan and southern Egypt are found today. Some of the earliest farming societies began in this region of Africa. Archaeologists have referred to early Nubian civilization by the term A-Group culture. They have analyzed almost 200 sites. They are mainly cemeteries and ancient settlements. Archaeologists have unearthed Nubian storage pits. They have also discovered stone tools, grindstones, gold, copper, and pottery. Some of these artifacts were made from local sources. Nubian artifacts appear to have many similarities with those of Nubia's Egyptian neighbors. These similarities indicate that the two societies shared many traits. For example, Nubian burials were done in a similar fashion to the Egyptians. Both societies positioned the bodies facing west and left offerings to guide the dead to the afterlife. Nubian and Egyptian graves also held similar artifacts. Some of the decorations on these artifacts display similar styles. There are also similarities between the ancient scripts of Egypt and Nubia. These similarities indicate they may have shared a common language. These findings offer clues about connections between the two cultures.There is also evidence of established trade networks between the two civilizations and beyond. One example is Lapis lazuli, a deep blue, semi-precious stone. It has been found in both Nubian and Egyptian sites. Lapis lazuli was usedin the creation of the female figure shown on the right. Such figures may have served as fertility symbols (very much like the Venus of Willendorf discussed in Era 2). It is interesting that the nearest quarry (mine) for this rock was in modern-day Afghanistan. These mines are thousands of miles from where these artifacts were found in Africa. Nubian women may have been more highly regarded than women in other early agrarian societies. They were viewed as capable farmers. They were also honored as givers of life. Nubian women held important roles in religious rituals related to birth (creation), death, and rebirth. Ancient Egypt—predynastic, protodynastic, and early dynastic periods (c. 6000-2700 BCE)When we think of ancient Egyptian culture, we may picture pyramids and mummies. The pyramids are huge structures that housed the dead. They have stood for millennia. Egyptian history, though, began long before the pyramids were built about 4,700 years ago. Ancient Egypt is usually divided into periods ruled by different dynasties—lines of rulers in the same family—who ruled as pharaohs. These dynasties really began to rule Egypt around 3000 BCE. In this article, we are mainly focusing on:
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader119•The Predynastic Period lasted from about 6000-3200 BCE. This was the period beforedynasties of kings ruling a unified Egypt.•The Protodynastic Period lasted from about around 3200-3000 BCE. This was the period in which a centralized kingdom began to emerge.•The Early Dynastic Period lasted from about 3000-2700 BCE. This was the time of the earliest pharaohs.The early history of Egypt covers the transition to agriculture and the founding of societies ruled by kings. There are still things we do not know about this ancient history. We do know that early farming communities existed along the Nile River Valley. The shift from foraging to farming was a gradual one. It took about 2,000-2,500 years and may have been driven by a changing climate. A long dry period seems to have occurred. It pushed people closer to the life-giving resources of the Nile.Lower Egypt had fertile soil and access to networks of trade. As a result, this section of Egypt grew in population and wealth. Throughout the predynastic period, rulers of different communities began to gain more power. As a result, contact between communities grew. The sharing of beliefs and places for rituals became more common. An example of these shared spiritual places was the city of Abydos. For the Nubians, it was a necropolis, or city of the dead. Later, Abydos was also chosen as the burial place for Egyptian royalty.The unification of Egypt marks a significant point in Egyptian history. Egyptian kings consolidated power and the region grew into an ancient superpower. This began the Early Dynastic Period in Egyptian history.Unification of EgyptThe unification of Egypt about 4,800 years ago marks a significant turning point in Egyptian history. Its kings brought more and more people under their control. The kingdom became a superpower.The early kings of Egypt maintained a dual role as both god and king. This idea of opposing forces joining together was important in its society. The culture incorporated this concept in many aspects. It included the relationship between life and afterlife. The concept also reflected the complementary nature of male and female. This idea of harmony between the sexes helped elevate the status of Egyptian women. As in Nubia, women held important roles in religious rituals and agriculture. Egyptian women also received equal pay for equal work. They could own their own businesses and land. Such equality has rarely been the case in world history.Ancient Agrarian Societies: Nubia and Ancient Egypt (750L)Bridgette Byrd O’ConnorIntroductionEarly humans lived in Africa for hundreds of thousandsof years as foragers. So, why did humans shift from foraging to farming? Some of the answers are found along the Nile. The Nile River is the longest river in the world. This stretch of land provided everything to sustain life. It also connected Egypt withNubia, its southern neighbor.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader120Nubia, A-Group culture (c. 3800-2900 BCE)The ancient settlements of Nubia developed where Sudan and southern Egypt are found today. Some of the earliest farming societies began in Nubia. Archaeologists have referred to theseearly inhabitants as A-Group culture. Researchers have analyzed almost 200 ancient sites. They are mainly cemeteries and settlements. Archaeologists have unearthed Nubian storage pits. They have also discovered stone tools, gold, and pottery. Some of these artifacts were made from local sources. Others were brought from Egypt. Nubian and early Egyptian artifacts have many similarities. These similarities indicate the two societies shared many traits. There is also evidence of strong trade networks between Nubia and Egypt. Nubians also buried their dead in a similar fashion to the Egyptians. Both societies positioned their dead facing west. They left offerings to guide the dead to the afterlife. Nubian and Egyptian graves also held similar artifacts. Someof the decorations use similar styles. These clues all suggest the cultures of Nubia and Egypt were connected. Lapis lazuli is another example of a Nubian-Egyptian connection. This deep blue semi-precious stone was mined far away in Southwest Asia. However, it has been found in both Nubian and Egyptian sites. It was used in the creation of the female figure shown on the right. These figures may have been used as fertility symbols (very much like the Venus of Willendorf discussed in Era 2). Ancient Egypt—predynastic, protodynastic, and early dynastic periods (c. 6000-2700 BCE)When we think of ancient Egyptian culture, we may picture pyramids and mummies. The pyramids are huge structures that housed the dead. They have stood for thousands of years. Egyptian history, though, began long before the pyramids were built. Ancient Egypt is often divided into three periods. These periods were ruled by different dynasties, or lines of rulers in the same family. These rulers were known as pharaohs. These dynasties really began to rule Egypt around 3000 BCE. In this article, we are mainly focusing on:•The Predynastic Period lasted from 6000-3200 BCE. This was the period beforedynasties of kings ruling a unified Egypt.•The Protodynastic Period lasted from around 3200-3000 BCE. This was the period in which a centralized kingdom began to emerge.•The Early Dynastic Period lasted from 3000-2700 BCE. This was the time of the earliest pharaohs.The early history of Egypt covers the transition to agriculture and the founding of societies ruled by kings. We do know that early farming communities existed along the Nile River Valley. The shift to farming was a gradual one. It took about 2,000-2,500 years and may have been driven by a changing climate. A long dry period seems to have occurred. It pushed people closer to the resources of the Nile.Like Nubia, Egypt had trade relationships with Southwest Asia. We know this from artifacts found in burial sites. Lower Egypt had fertile soil and access to networks of trade. As a result,this section of Egypt grew in population, wealth, and power. Before the dynasties, rulers of different communities gained more power. As a result, contact between communities grew. The sharing of beliefs and places for rituals became more common. An example of these
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader121shared spiritual places was the city of Abydos. For the Nubians, it was a necropolis, or city of the dead. Later, Abydos became the burial place for Egyptian royalty.The unification of Egypt marks a significant point in Egyptian history. Egyptian kings united to become more powerful. This began the EarlyDynastic Period in Egyptian history.Unification of EgyptThe unification of Egypt took place about 4,800 years ago. It marks a key turning point in Egyptian history. Egyptian kings brought more and more people under their control. This period is also when hieroglyphic writing became more common. There are similarities between the ancient scripts of Egypt and Nubia. These similarities indicate they may have shared a common language.The early kings of Egypt maintained a dual role as both god and king. Theidea of dual, opposing forces was important in Egyptian society. It included the notion of life and afterlife. It also reflected the related nature of male and female. This idea of harmony between the sexes meant Egyptian women had status. As in Nubia, women held important roles in religious rituals and agriculture. Egyptian women also received equal pay for equal work. They could own their own land. They could run their own businesses. Such equality has rarely been the case in human history.Ancient Agrarian Societies: Nubia and Ancient Egypt (590L)Bridgette Byrd O’ConnorIntroductionThe earliest humans arose in Africa. They lived there for hundreds of thousands of years. They started out as foragers, eating food they found. Later, though, they began tofarm. So, why did they shift from foraging to farming? One reason, especially in this section of Africa, was the impact of naturally occurring climate change. As this area became dryer, fewer resources were available. The Nile River had many resources. The land along it had everything humans needed to thrive. The river also connected Egypt and Nubia, its southern neighbor.Nubia, A-Group culture (c. 3800-2900 BCE)The settlements of Nubia grew where the country of Sudan and southern Egypt are today. Some of the earliest farming communities began there. Archaeologists call this society A-Group culture. Archaeologists are scientists. They learn about ancient people by studying artifacts. Artifacts are objects these people left behind. Archaeologists have studied about 200 ancient Nubian sites. They have found stone tools, gold, and pots. Some of these artifacts were made from local sources. Others came from Egypt. There was a great deal of trade between the two cultures.Research shows Egypt and Nubia shared many traits. For example, they buried their dead in similar ways. The bodies were positioned facing west. Offerings were put with the burials. Objects of the two cultures were decorated with similar styles. Their styles of writing were also similar.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader122Lapis lazuli has been found in both Nubian and Egyptian archaeological sites. It is a deep blue stone. It was mined in Asia and brought to this part of Africa. This stone was used to carve the female figure below. Such figures may have been symbols of fertility.Fertility is the idea of birth and life. (See the Venus of Willendorf discussed in Era 2. It is also considered a fertility symbol.)Such objects offer important clues about the past. They suggest the cultures of Nubia and Egypt were closely connected.Ancient Egypt—predynastic, protodynastic, and early dynastic periods (c. 6000-2700 BCE)There are three periods of Ancient Egypt. These periods were ruled by different dynasties, or lines of rulers in the same family. These rulers were known as pharaohs. These dynasties really began to rule Egypt around 3000 BCE. In this article, we are mainly focusing on:•The Predynastic Period. This lasted between 6000-3200 BCE. This was the period beforedynasties of kings ruling a unified Egypt.•The Protodynastic Period. This lasted between 3200-3000 BCE. This was the period in which a centralized kingdom began to emerge.•The Early Dynastic Period lasted from 3000-2700 BCE. This was the time of the earliest pharaohs.The very early history of Egypt is hard to piece together. The first farming settlements grew along the Nile River Valley. The shift to farming took 2,000-2,500 years. It may have been caused by a change in climate. There likely was a long, dry period. More people moved closer to the Nile's life-giving waters.Egypt's rulers became more powerful. They reached out toward other kingdoms, including Nubia. The sharing of beliefs and religious sites became more common. The city of Abydos is one example. It was a burial site for the Nubians. Later, Egyptian rulers were also buried there.The unification of Egypt was important. Egyptian kings came together. This only added to their power. This began the Early Dynastic Period in Egyptian history.Unification of EgyptNorthern and southern Egypt joined together around 3100 BCE. Egypt became a superpower.The early kings of Egypt were seen as gods and humans. This idea of two parts joined together was important in their society. It included thoughts about life and the afterlife. The relationship between male and female was another example.As a result, women were often treated as nearly equal to men in these cultures. As in Nubia, women held important roles in religious rituals and agriculture. Egyptian women received equal pay for equal work. They could own land. They sometimes ran businesses. Such equality has rarely been seen in human history.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader123Ancient Agrarian Societies: The Olmec and ChavínThey didn’t leave us much, but two ancient societies in the Americas left enough clues behind to piece together the rituals and systems they may have developed several millennia ago.Ancient Agrarian Societies: The Olmec and Chavín (1300L)Bridgette Byrd O’ConnorIntroductionEarly humans migrated to the Americas at least 15,000 years ago, but possibly much earlier. They established foraging communities throughout North, Central, and South America. As in other parts of the world, these foragers eventually began to cultivate (farm) crops, usually along river valleys. The earliest community that practiced a mixture of farming as well as foraging methods like hunting and fishing was known as the Olmec, in modern-day Mexico. One of the earliest settlements in South America was the community at Chavín de Huántar in modern-day Peru. These cultures had a lot in common with other Mesoamerican and Andean people who inhabited these regions from Paleolithic times until the arrival of the Spanish in the fifteenth century.The Olmec (c. 1600-350 BCE)Foraging communities lived in this portion of Mesoamerica from at least 2500 BCE. Around 1600 BCE, the Olmec people founded settlements along the Coatzacoalcos River near the Gulf of Mexico in modern-day Veracruz, Mexico. These settlements included structures used for religious rituals and more permanent dwelling sites. The largest Olmec city was San Lorenzo, initially occupied by the ruling elites and religious leaders of Olmec society. Other major cities of the Olmec included Tres Zapotes, Laguna de los Cerros, and La Venta. These were located along the Papaloapan and Tonalá rivers that also extend from the Gulf of Mexico. Those areas are known today as Veracruz and Tabasco, Mexico. Archaeologists believe that central rulers, such as kings or chiefs, governed these cities using political and economic power as well as religious authority.The Olmec did not leave any written records, but archaeological evidence provides a wealth of information about this early Mesoamerican society. The most recognizable artifacts of the Olmec are the massive sculpted heads that were carved from volcanic rock, called basalt, and weighed about 20 tons each. These statues were carved out of the Sierra de los Tuxtlas Mountains to the north of the Olmec cities. They were then transported about 60-70 km (37-43 miles) to various sites. Each depicts a male head and face with pretty distinctive features, suggesting that these statues represented individual Olmec kings rather than gods. Depictions of gods tended to be more magical creations that blended animal and human imagery. Temple structures in the major Olmec cities also contained freestanding and relief sculptures, pottery, masks, and ritual tools. Much of this art was created using clay and stone but there are also many pieces made from the green gemstone called jadeand the volcanic glassy rock known as obsidian.While the basalt and stone were sourced locally, the jade was imported from areas to the south of the Olmec settlements, and they obtained obsidian from the north. The frequent use of these materials in Olmec art suggests that this society developed extensive trade networks with other cultures in this region. Later
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader124societies like the Maya and Aztecs also share enough similarities with Olmec art and culture to suggest that they adopted certain cultural aspects of this earlier community.The main cities were reserved for the kings and elite members of Olmec society, and were usually places for rituals. Most people lived in more rural areas, where they worked as farmers and craftspeople. The Olmec cultivated a variety of crops including maize, cotton, squash, beans, sweet potatoes, manioc, and rubber. The Olmec society was one of the first to discover how to extract the sap and juice of the rubber tree to create a useful substance that could be stretched and bounced. Archaeologists also found the ruins of a ball court, which the Olmec used to play an ancient Mesoamerican game using a rubber ball. In fact, it was the Aztecs who would give the Olmecs their name, which translates to "rubber people." The Olmec ballgame may have been played for sport as well as part of a ritual where the losing team was subject to sacrifice—as in, killed. There is also evidence of ritual bloodletting59practices as archaeologists have found daggers and other bloodletting tools. These rituals of human sacrifice and bloodletting were probably performed to appease the Olmec gods, who were a combination of human and animal forms, both male and female. They could have also been used as a way to control the people through a mixture of spiritual beliefs and fear.At its height, Olmec society may have grown as large as 20,000 inhabitants. But without any written documents to support these numbers, archaeologists have to make assumptions based on the land area and artifacts. Over the course of Olmec history, it appears that certain cities gained prominence at different times and then declined. This may indicate that the ritual centers had to be moved for some reason. Archaeologists and environmental historians have theorized that climate change as well as volcanic eruptions could have ruined the farmland in certain parts. These are the main reasons that historians use to explain why the Olmec society eventually ended around 350 BCE. Chavín (c. 900-250 BCE)South of the Olmecs by about 5,500 km (3,500 miles)—wenever said the Americas were small—a society known as the Chavín developed. They inhabited the area where the Mosna and Huachecsa rivers meet along the Peruvian Pacific coast and in the Andes Mountains region. Like the Olmec up north, Chavín culture did not leave any written records. Actually, we don't even know what they were really called. Chavíncomes from the Spanish name for the temple ruins at Chavín de Huántar. Archaeologists have determined that the temple was used for ritual purposes and may havebeen shared by different settlements in the region. The temple has staircases, archways, and numerous underground corridors like a maze. It is thought that processions of people would enter the temple and witness a shaman (priest) conduct ceremonies on various platforms in the complex. However, archaeologists haven't found any evidence of people residing at this location. There are no hearths, trash, dwellings, or any other of the typical archeological finds that can prove people lived there. Renovations occurred at the temple after 500 BCE, possibly to accommodate a larger population taking part in religious ceremonies.The dwellings and agricultural sites they did find at Chavín were located outside of the temple complex. These sites were spaced out, so in the lowlands near the river, crops such as quinoa were grown, while up in 59Bloodletting was a process by which shaman (religious figures like priests) would use implements such as obsidian daggers, bones, or stingray barbs to slice open either their or someone else’s cheek, earlobe, or tongue. The blood from these cuts would then be placed on cotton that was burned to summon the gods for communication.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader125the mountains they grew potatoes. There was also an increase in the production of pottery after 500 BCE, indicating an increase in food production. People needed more jars to carryand store extra food. There is also evidence that the Chavín society domesticated llamas. They used these animals for transporting goods throughout the Chavín region and beyond, as more products originating from regions outside Chavín have been found (some of these goods were located hundreds of miles from the center of Chavín society). This also leads scholars to believe that the Chavín were a part of a larger, interregional trade network. Other nearby societies also incorporated Chavín artistic style in their own pottery and sculptures, which shows interconnection and communication between communities. Chavín society was organized hierarchically, and shaman-priests had the most authority. They also appear to have performed bloodletting rituals on stone slabs at the temple. It is thought that shamans induced a trance-like state by ingesting mushrooms, coca leaves, and cactus juice. As in Olmec society, the residents of Chavín may have been controlled through the use of religion and fear. This indicates that the Chavín may have had a central authority such as a religious leader, but we don't really know how their society was organized politically. There don't appear to be any defensive structures to protect the area or weapons of war. The imagery used in thetemple site combined a mix of real and mythical animals including jaguars, snakes, eagles, and a winged crocodile. The Chavín people were also skilled at metal work. They soldered60gold to create crowns, masks, and jewelry. In addition, they wove cotton textiles to create wall hangings as well as clothing.At its height, the center of Chavín society encompassed an area of about 1,000 acres, which could support a population of about 2,000-3,000 people. Scholars are not sure why the Chavín society's population declined or relocated. Some possible explanations include environmental changes such as overuse of the surrounding land, or the site that was used for religious purposes declined somehow.SourcesBrown, Cynthia Stokes. “Mesoamerica: Repeated Reinventions.” Big History Project, 2014.Cartwright, Mark. “Olmec Civilization.” Ancient History Encyclopedia, 2018. Accessed November 29, 2018. https://www.ancient.eu/Olmec_Civilization/Clark, J. E. “The Arts of Government in Early Mesoamerica.” Annual Review of Anthropology 26 (1997): 211-234.Fowler, William R., McCafferty, Geoffrey G., Cheetham, David, & Blomster, Jeffrey P. “Special Section: Rethinking the Olmecs and Early Formative Mesoamerica, Introduction.” Ancient Mesoamerica 21, no. 1 (2010): 91-94.Khan Academy. “The Olmec.” Khan Academy, 2018. Accessed November 29, 2018. https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/world-history/world-history-beginnings/ancient-americas/a/the-olmec-article60When you solder something you melt it enough to change its shape and attach it to something else.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader126Learn, Joshua Rapp. “Ancient Maya Bloodletting Tools or Common Kitchen Knives? How Archaeologists Tell the Difference.” Smithsonian, 2016. Accessed November 29, 2018. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/ancient-maya-bloodletting-tools-or-kitchen-knives-how-archaeologists-tell-difference-1-180960232/Rosenfeld, Silvana A. and Stefanie L. Bautista, eds. Rituals of the Past: Prehispanic Colonial Case Studies in Andean Archaeology.Boulder, CO: University Press of Colorado, 2017.Author BioBridgette Byrd O’Connor holds a DPhil in history from the University of Oxford and has taught Big History, world history, and AP US government and politics for the past 10 years at the high school level. She is currently a writer and editor for the World History Project and the Big History Project. In addition, Bridgette has been a freelance writer and editor for the Crash Course world history and US history curricula.Ancient Agrarian Societies: The Olmec and Chavín (1210L)Bridgette Byrd O’ConnorIntroductionEarly humans migrated to the Americas at least 15,000 years ago, but possibly much earlier. They established foraging communities throughout North, Central and South America. As in other parts of the world, these foragers eventually began to farm crops, usually along river valleys. The Olmec, who lived in modern-day Mexico, was the earliest community to practice a mixture of farming and foraging methods like hunting and fishing. One of the earliest settlements in South America was the community at Chavín de Huántar in modern-day Peru. These cultures had a lot in common with other Mesoamerican and Andean people who inhabited these regions from the time the first humans arrived until the arrival of the Spanish in the fifteenth century.The Olmec (c. 1600-350 BCE)Foraging communities lived in what is now south-central Mexico from at least 2500 BCE. Around 1600 BCE, the Olmec people founded settlements along the Coatzacoalcos River near the Gulf of Mexico in modern-day Veracruz, Mexico. These settlements included structures used for religious rituals and more permanent dwelling sites. The largest Olmec city was San Lorenzo, which was occupied at first by the elite rulers and religious leaders of Olmec society. Other major Olmec cities were located nearby along the Papaloapan and Tonalá rivers, in what is now Veracruz and Tabasco, Mexico. Archaeologists believe that central rulers, such as kings or chiefs, governed these cities using political and economic power as well as religious authority.The Olmec did not leave any written records, but archaeological evidence providesa wealth of information about this early Mesoamerican society. The most recognizable artifacts of the Olmec are the massive sculpted heads, each weighing around 20 tons, about as heavy as three elephants. The statues were carved out of mountains using a volcanic rock called basalt, and then transported about 60-70 kilometers (37-43 miles) to various sites. Scientists believe the heads represent Olmec kings.Many of the Olmec's sculptures, pottery and masks were created using clay and stone. However, there are also many pieces made from the green gemstone called jadeand the glassy volcanic rock known as obsidian.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader127Jade and obsidian were both obtained from outside the Olmec settlements. Both materials were used often in Olmec art, suggesting the Olmec developed large trade networks with other cultures in order to obtain the materials. The Olmec likely influenced later societies like the Maya and Aztecs, who have some similarities with Olmec art and culture. The main Olmec cities were reserved for the kings and elite members of Olmec society, and were usually places for rituals. Most people lived in more rural areas, where they worked as farmers and craftspeople. The Olmec cultivated a variety of crops including maize, cotton, squash and beans. The Olmec society was also one of the first to discover how to make rubber from the rubber tree. Archaeologists also found the ruins of a ball court, which the Olmec used to play an ancient Mesoamerican game using a rubber ball. In fact, it was the Aztecs who would give the Olmecs their name, which means "rubber people."The Olmec ballgame may have been played for sport, as well as part of a ritual where the losing team was killed in a ritual sacrifice. Human sacrifices were probably performed to make peace with the Olmec gods, who were male and female and took a combination of human and animal forms. They could have also been used as a way to control the people through a mixture of spiritual beliefs and fear.At its height, Olmec society may have grown as large as 20,000 inhabitants. But without any written documents to confirm these numbers, archaeologists have to make assumptions based on the size of Olmec land, as well as artifacts. Over the course of Olmec history, it appears that certain cities became grew in importance at certain times, and then declined. This may indicate that the ritual centers had to be moved for some reason. Scientists have also suggested that climate change as well as volcanic eruptions could have ruined parts of Olmec farmland. These are the mainreasons that historians use to explain why the Olmec society eventually ended around 350 BCE.Chavín (c. 900-250 BCE)About 5,500 km (3,500 miles) South of the Olmecs, a society known as the Chavín developed. The Chavín inhabited an area near two rivers on the coast of Peru, as well as in the Andes Mountains region. Like the Olmec up north, Chavín culture did not leave any written records, and we don't even know what they were really called. Chavíncomes from the Spanish name for the temple ruins at Chavín de Huántar.Archaeologists have determined that the temple was used for religious rituals and may have been shared by different settlements in the region. The temple is like a maze, with numerous staircases and underground corridors. However, archaeologists haven't found trash, living spaces or any other evidence of people living inside the temple. Renovations occurred atthe temple after 500 BCE, possibly to make more space for the growing number of people taking part in religious ceremonies.The dwellings and agricultural sites they did find at Chavín were spread apart outside of the temple complex. Crops like quinoa were grown in the area near the river, while potatoes were grown in the mountains. More pottery was produced after 500 BCE, suggesting that the Chavín were producing more food and needed more jars to store the extra food. There is also evidence that the Chavín society raised llamas to transport goods throughout the Chavín region and beyond. Chavín goods have been found hundreds of miles away from Chavín land, and other communities used Chavín artistic style in their own art. This leads scientists to believe that the Chavín were part of a large trade network and communicated with other communities.Chavín society was organized in a hierarchy, meaning members of the society were ranked by social status. At the top of the hierarchy were shaman-priests, who had themost authority. As in Olmec society, the
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader128residents of Chavín may have been controlled through the use of religion and fear. This indicates that Chavín society may have had a central political ruler, such as a religious leader, but we don't really know howtheir society was organized politically. The Chavín people used gold to create crowns, masks and jewelry, and they also wove cotton textiles. At its height, the center of Chavín society occupied an area of about 1,000 acres, which could support a population of about 2,000-3,000 people. Scientists are not sure why the Chavín society's population declined or relocated, but it's possible that the land was overused, resulting in environmental changes. Another possibility is that the Chavín's religious site became less important for some reason.Ancient Agrarian Societies: The Olmec and Chavín (1040L)Bridgette Byrd O’ConnorIntroductionEarly humans migrated to the Americas at least 15,000 years ago. It's possible they migrated much earlier. These early humanscreated foraging communities throughout North, Central and South America. Like other communities around the world, these foragers eventually began to farm crops, usually along rivers. However, the Olmec were the earliest community to practice a mixture offarming and foraging methods like hunting and fishing. The Olmec lived in modern-day Mexico. One of the earliest settlements in South America was the community at Chavín de Huántar in modern-day Peru. These cultures had a lot in common with other Mesoamerican and Andean peoples who lived in these regions from the time the first humans arrived until the Spanish arrived in the fifteenth century.The Olmec (c. 1600-350 BCE)Foraging communities lived in what is now south-central Mexico beginning around 2500 BCE. Around 1600 BCE, the Olmec people founded settlements along the Coatzacoalcos River near the Gulf of Mexico in modern-day Veracruz, Mexico. These settlements included structures for religious ceremonies and more permanent living sites. The largest Olmec city was San Lorenzo. At first, it was just elite rulers and religious leaders of Olmec society that lived in San Lorenzo. Other major Olmec cities were located nearby in what is now Veracruz and Tabasco, Mexico. Archaeologists believe that central rulers, such as kings or chiefs, governed the Olmec cities. They ruled using political and economic power, as well as religious authority.The Olmec did not leave any written records, but archaeological evidence provides a large amount of information about them. The most recognizable artifacts of the Olmec are the massive sculpted heads. Each head weighed around 20 tons, about as heavy as three elephants. The statues were carved out of mountains using a volcanic rock called basalt, and then transported about 60-70 kilometers (37-43 miles) to various sites. The Olmecs often used other materials to make their art. However, these materials were obtained from outside the Olmec settlements, suggesting that the Olmec had large trade networks with other cultures. The Olmec likely influenced later societies like the Maya and Aztecs, who have some similarities with Olmec art and culture.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader129The main Olmec cities were reserved for the kings and elite members of Olmec society, as well as religious ceremonies. Most Olmec people lived in more rural areas, where they worked as farmers and craftspeople. The Olmec farmed a variety of crops including maize, cotton, squash and beans. The Olmec society was one of the first to discover how to make rubber from the rubber tree. Archaeologists also found the ruins of a ball court, which the Olmec used to play an ancient Mesoamerican game using a rubber ball. In fact, it was the Aztecs who gave the Olmecs their name, which means "rubber people."The Olmec ballgame may have been played for sport. It also may have been part of a ritual where the losing team was killed in a sacrifice. Human sacrifices were probably performed to make peace with the Olmec gods. The sacrifices could also have been used as a way to control the people through religious beliefs and fear.At its largest, Olmec society may have had as many as 20,000 people. However, there are no written documents to confirm these numbers. Instead, archaeologists have to estimate based on the size of Olmec land, as well as artifacts. During Olmec history, certain cities grew in importance at certain times, and then declined. By 350 BCE, Olmec society had ended completely. Historians have two main ideas for explaining what happened to the Olmecs. It's possible the centers for religious life had to be moved, causing the cities to decline. Scientists have also suggested that climate change and volcanic eruptions could have ruined parts of Olmec farmland. Chavín (c. 900-250 BCE)About 5,500 km (3,500 miles) South of the Olmecs, a society known as the Chavín developed. The Chavín inhabited an area near two rivers on the coast of Peru, as well as in the Andes Mountains region. Like the Olmec up north, Chavín culture did not leave any written records. We don't even know what they were really called. Chavíncomes from the Spanish name for the temple ruins at Chavín de Huántar.Archaeologists have determined that the temple was used for religious ceremonies. It may have been shared by different settlements in the region. However, archaeologists haven't found trash, living spaces or any other evidence of people living inside the temple. The temple was renovated after 500 BCE, possibly to make more space for the growing number of people taking part in religious ceremonies.The dwellings and agricultural sites they did find at Chavín were located outside of the temple complex. Crops like quinoa were grown in the area near the river, while potatoes were grown in the mountains. More pottery was produced after 500 BCE. This suggests that the Chavín were producing more food and needed more jars to store the extra food. There is also evidence that the Chavín society raised llamas to transport goods throughout the Chavín region and beyond. Chavín goods have been found hundreds of miles away from Chavín land, and other communities used Chavín artistic style in their own art. Scientists believe this is because the Chavín were part of a large trade network and communicated with other communities.Chavín society was organized in a hierarchy, meaning members of Chavín society were ranked by social status. At the top of the hierarchy were shaman-priests, who had the most authority. Like the Olmecs, the residents of Chavín may have been controlled by religion and fear. This suggests that Chavín society may have had a central political ruler, such as a religious leader. However, we don't really know how their government was organized.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader130At its largest, the center of Chavín society was about 1,000 acres, an area around the size of 1,000 football fields. The land could support a population of about 2,000-3,000 people. Scientists are not sure why the Chavín society's population declined or relocated, but it's possible that the land was overused, resulting in environmental changes. Another possibility is that the Chavín's religious site became less important for some reason.Ancient Agrarian Societies: The Olmec and Chavín (940L)Bridgette Byrd O’ConnorIntroductionSome of the first humans came to the Americas about 15,000 years ago. These early humans created foraging communities throughout North, Central and South America. Like other communities around the world, these foragers eventually began to farm crops. Usually, they settled around rivers. However, the Olmec were the first community to practice a mixture of farming and foraging methods like hunting and fishing. The Olmec lived in modern-day Mexico. One of the earliest settlements in South America was the community at Chavín de Huántar in modern-day Peru. These cultures had a lot in common with other Mesoamerican and Andean peoples who lived in these regions from the time the first humans arrived until the Spanish arrived in the fifteenth century.The Olmec (c. 1600-350 BCE)Foraging communities lived in what is now south-central Mexico beginning around 2500 BCE. Around 1600 BCE, the Olmec people founded settlements along rivers near the Gulf of Mexico. Today, those areas are part of Tabasco and Veracruz, Mexico.These settlements included structures for religious ceremonies and more permanent living sites. The largest Olmec city was San Lorenzo. At first, it was just elite rulers and religious leaders of Olmec society that lived in San Lorenzo. Archaeologists believe that kings or chiefs governed San Lorenzo and the other Olmec cities. These rulers probably had control over government, religion and business activity in Olmec society. This control allowed them to rule over the cities.The Olmec did not leave any written records. However, archaeological evidence provides a large amount of information about them. The most recognizable artifacts of the Olmec are the giant head sculptures. Each head weighed around 20 tons, about as heavy as three elephants. The statueswere carved out of volcanic rock and then transported about 60-70 kilometers (37-43 miles) to various sites. The Olmecs often obtained materials from outside the Olmec settlements to make art. This suggests that the Olmec had large trade networks with other cultures. The Olmec likely influenced later societies like the Maya and Aztecs, who have similarities with Olmec art and culture. The main Olmec cities were reserved for the kings and upper-class members of Olmec society. They were also used for religious ceremonies. Most Olmec people lived in rural areas, where they worked as farmers and craftspeople. The Olmec farmed a variety of crops including maize, cotton, squash and beans. The Olmec society was one of the first to discover how to make rubber from the rubber tree. Archaeologists also found the ruins of a ball court. The Olmec used the courts to play an ancient Mesoamerican game using a rubber ball. The Olmec ballgame may have been played for sport. It also may
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader131have been part of a religious ritualwhere the losing team was killed in a sacrifice. The sacrifices may have been used to control the people through religion and fear.At its largest, Olmec society may have had as many as 20,000 people. However, there are no written documents to confirm these numbers. Instead, archaeologists have to estimate based on the size of Olmec land, as well as artifacts.By 350 BCE, Olmec society had ended. Historians have two ideas about what happened to the Olmecs. It's possible the centers for religious life had to be moved, causing the cities to decline. Scientists have also suggested that climate change and volcanic eruptions could have ruined parts of Olmec farmland. Chavín (c. 900-250 BCE)About 5,500 km (3,500 miles) South of the Olmecs, a society known as the Chavín developed. The Chavín lived near two rivers on the coast of Peru, as well as in the Andes Mountains region. Like the Olmec up north, Chavín culture did not leave any written records. We don't even know what they were really called. Chavíncomes from the Spanish name for the temple ruins at Chavín de Huántar.Archaeologists have determined that the temple was used for religious ceremonies. It may have been shared by different settlements in the region. However, archaeologists haven't found any evidence that people lived inside the temple. The temple was renovated after 500 BCE, possibly to make more space for the growing number of people taking part in religious ceremonies.The dwellings and agricultural sites they did find at Chavín were located outside of the temple complex. The Chavín produced more pottery after 500 BCE. This suggests that the Chavín were producing more food and needed more jars to store the extra food. There is also evidence that the Chavín society raised llamas to transport goods. Chavín goods have been found hundreds of miles away from Chavín land. Other communities used Chavín artistic style in their own art. Scientists believe this is because the Chavín were part of a large trade network and communicated with other communities.Chavín society was organized in a hierarchy, meaning members of society were ranked by social status. At the top of the hierarchy were shaman-priests, who had the most authority. Like the Olmecs, the residents of Chavín may have been controlled by religion and fear. This suggests that Chavín society may have had a central political ruler, such as a religious leader. However, we don't really know how their government was organized.At its largest, the center of Chavín society was large enough to support a population of about 2,000-3,000 people. Scientists are not sure what happened to the Chavín. It's possible that their land was overused, resulting in environmental changes. Another possibility is that the Chavín's religious site became less important for some reason, and the Chavín people moved away.Ancient Agrarian Societies: The Olmec and Chavín (840L)Bridgette Byrd O’ConnorIntroductionAbout 15,000 years ago, some of the first humans came to the Americas. These early humans created foraging communitiesin North, Central and South America. Like other communities around the world, these foragers eventually began to farm crops. Usually, they settled around rivers. However, the Olmec were the
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader132first community to practice both farming and foraging methods like hunting and fishing. The Olmec lived in modern-day Mexico. One of the earliest settlements in South America was the community at Chavín de Huántar in modern-day Peru. These cultures had a lot in common with other Mesoamerican and Andean peoples. These peoples lived in these regions from the time the first humans arrived until the Spanish arrived in the fifteenth century.The Olmec (c. 1600-350 BCE)Foraging communities lived in what is now south-central Mexico beginning around 2500 BCE. Around 1600 BCE, the Olmec people founded settlements along rivers near the Gulf of Mexico. Today, those areas are part of Tabasco and Veracruz, Mexico. These settlements included structures for religious ceremonies and more permanent living areas. The largest Olmec city was San Lorenzo. At first, it was just the rulers and religious leaders of Olmec society that lived in San Lorenzo. Archaeologists believe that kings or chiefs governed the other Olmec cities. These rulers probably had control over government, religion and business activity in Olmec society. This control allowed them to rule over the cities.The Olmec did not leave any written records. However, archaeological evidence tells us a lot about them. The most well-known artifacts of the Olmec are the giant head sculptures. Each head weighed around 20 tons, about as heavy as three elephants. The Olmecs made art using other materials. They often obtained these materials from outside the Olmec settlements. This suggests the Olmec had large trade networks with other cultures. The Olmec likely influenced later societies like the Maya and Aztecs, whose art and culture was similar to the Olmecs. The main Olmec cities were reserved for the kings and upper-class members of Olmec society. They were also used for religious ceremonies. Most Olmec people lived in rural areas, where they worked as farmers and craftspeople. The Olmec society was one of the first to discover how to make rubber from the rubber tree. Archaeologists also found the ruins of a ball court. The Olmec used the court to play an ancient Mesoamerican game using a rubber ball. The Olmec ballgame may have been played for sport. It also may have been part of a religious ritual where the losing team was killed in a sacrifice. The sacrifices may have been used tocontrol the people through religion and fear.At its largest, Olmec society may have had as many as 20,000 people. However, there are no written documents to confirm these numbers. Instead, archaeologists have to estimate based on the size of Olmec land, as well as artifacts. By 350 BCE, Olmec society had ended. Historians have two main ideas about what happened to the Olmecs. It's possible the centers for religious life had to be moved. As a result, the cities shrunk. Scientists have also suggested that climate change and volcanic eruptions could have ruined parts of Olmec farmland. Chavín (c. 900-250 BCE)About 5,500 km (3,500 miles) South of the Olmecs, a society known as the Chavín developed. The Chavín lived near two rivers on the coast of Peru. They also lived in the Andes Mountains region. Likethe Olmec up
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader133north, Chavín culture did not leave any written records. We don't even know what they were really called. Chavíncomes from the Spanish name for the temple ruins at Chavín de Huántar.Archaeologists have determined that the temple was used for religious ceremonies. It may have been shared by different settlements in the region. However, archaeologists haven't found any evidence that people lived inside the temple. Dwelling and agricultural sites were found outside of the temple.The Chavín produced more pottery after 500 BCE. This suggests that the Chavín were producing more food. They used the pottery to store the extra food. Chavín goods have been found hundreds of miles away from Chavín land. Other communities used the Chavín artistic stylein their own art. Scientists believe this is because the Chavín traded and communicated with other communities.Chavín society was organized in a hierarchy. Members of Chavín society were ranked by social status. At the top of the hierarchy were shaman-priests, who had the most power. Like the Olmecs, the residents of Chavín may have been controlled by religion and fear. This suggests that Chavín society may have had a central political ruler, such as a religious leader. However, we don't really know how their government was organized.At its largest, the center of Chavín society was large enough to support a population of about 2,000-3,000 people. Scientists are not sure what happened to the Chavín. It's possible that their land was overused, resulting in environmental changes. Another possibility is that the Chavín's religious site became less important for some reason. This may have motivated the Chavín people to move away.Ancient Agrarian Societies: AksumHuman origins have been traced back to sub-Saharan Africa. But the origins of agriculture are clearly found outside of Africa. While the shift to farming took more time in Africa, agrarian societies like Aksum grew to be powerful centers of farming and trade.Ancient Agrarian Societies: Aksum (980L)David BakerIntroductionEast Africa was the cradle of our species. For millions of years, our early human ancestors roamed across the land. It is, therefore, the homeland of every human being spread across the planet. In East Africa, one of the mightiest agrarian societies formed: the Aksum Empire. At its height in the third century CE, some ancient writers considered it one of the four great powers of the world, alongside Rome, Persia, and China.African agriculture, in general, got a latestart. It was invented independently in 3000 BCE on the other side of the continent in West Africa. One of the reasons for this "late start" is that human communities in this area had many resources available. They continued foraging and pastoralism, as they began domesticating cattle, sheep, and goats early in these regions. The African environment was well suited to foraging. Some
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader134communities were also reluctant to shift to agriculture. This change would mean a less healthy and more work-filled life.Collective learning from two agrarian networksAgriculture began in the Fertile Crescent. But the "Northern Horn" region of East Africa continued foraging for many thousands of years later. As agrarian societies in the Fertile Crescent grew larger, they had more communication with the Northern Horn. Knowledge of farming filtered down from Egypt and Southwest Asia. The communities of the Northern Horn began to adopt a mixture of foraging, farming, and animal herding. They domesticated ensete as early as 3000 BCE or more. This flowering plant was classified in the banana family. The people of the Northern Horn foraged for animal hides and bird feathers. They also foraged myrrh for use as perfume, and obsidian rocks to trade with Egypt.By 2000 BCE, most communities in the Northern Horn were semi-nomadic. They made use of foraging, farming, and pastoralism. They still used stone tools, as copper and bronze were rare in the region. However, eventually they began to use iron. Knowledge of iron smelting may have been discovered independently or this technique could have been adopted from other African societies. Some people in the region still foraged without making the shift to farming. But farming knowledge from Southwest Asia and Egypt eventually moved along trade networks. To the south, the rest of Africa would transition to farming much more slowly. But East Africa was influenced by their location between these two major trade networks.Early East African statesAround the same time, a major agrarian society arosein the Northern Horn, popularly known as D'mt. This kingdom reached its height between the tenth and fifth centuries BCE. Due to their trade connections with Egypt, they began developing more sustained farming. The surpluses were then traded, along with intricate stone jewelry. When the kingdom of D'mt fell, smaller kingdoms populated the area. These societies adopted iron and began exporting their metal work. Collective learning via the trade networks of Arabia and Egypt influenced Aksum's architecture and culture.For many years, Aksum was just a tiny settlement in the Northern Horn, slowly building more land and wealth from trade. Then in 30 BCE, something changed. The Romans under Augustus conquered Egypt. Aksum was brought into contact with the Roman world in the Mediterranean. Trade networks shifted from the Persian Gulf and overland Asian routes more to the Red Sea. Aksum soon became a hub of overseas trade between the Roman Empire and India.Aksum at the center of Afro-EurasiaBecoming a member of this trade network transformed Aksum from a small state into a powerful kingdom very quickly. Aksum managed trade between India and the Mediterranean in ivory, gold, emeralds, silk, spices, crops, salt, exotic animals, manufactured goods, and much more. In the first century CE, Aksum became very wealthy and powerful. They could afford to build a strong navy to patrol the Red Sea and protect their trade routes. It was at this time that Aksum was first mentioned by Greco-Roman scholars.As the society continued to grow, Aksum's capital showed signs of rapid expansion. The town grew so quickly that there seems to have been no master plan for the city's layout, or to detail where the city walls would be placed. Aksum built many grand monuments, and the elite were buried in elaborate tombs marked by huge
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader135stone pillars (stelae). These stelae had intricate carvings on them and were also used to commemorate victories, regions of the kingdom, and great events. They also provide some evidence thatAksum had a social hierarchy: bureaucrats, priests, soldiers, merchants, and artisans. Aksum had its own coinage, each dynasty etched onto the gold coins. Archaeologists have found these gold pieces from Rome to Persia to India, proof of the immense size of the trade network in which Aksum participated.Aksum was able to transport troops and expand its frontiers with naval power. The third century CE marks a period of intense military expansion. At its height, Aksum controlled North Ethiopia and parts of Sudan. They also controlled the southern Arabian Peninsula, most notably Yemen. Aksum was one of the true powers of the ancient world. They had wealth to hire swords and ships, and no comparable power in East Africa existed to oppose them. They were also one of the first agrarian societies in Africa. In the fourth century CE, Aksum formally adopted Christianity as its state religion. This linked Aksum to the Roman Empire, which had also officially made Christianity its state religion. Aksum sat at the centerof an ancient trade network that crossed Afro-Eurasia. So they would easily learn of technological developments.Social and political history of AksumAksum was unified under the rule of kings and grew through military conquests. Eventually it became an empire that controlled an important region of trade. The Aksum king was considered the "king of kings", and smaller kingdoms paid tribute to him. In order to keep these regional kings from uprising, the Aksum king stationed warriors in each feudal area. Theking and his administrators would then collect the tribute from these areas and meet with the regional kings, who pledged their support.The main sources of income for the kingdom were agriculture and herding. This was mainly from growing cereal grains and raising cattle, sheep, and goats. As the population grew, certain cities became more urbanized. Job specialization also became more varied. Examples of monumental architecture increased with palaces as the largest structures. The city of Aksum became themain center for kings and the royal court. The city of Adulis grew into a large market town where goods from the interior of Africa were traded. This included ivory, gold, perfume and exotic animals. These were all exchanged for foreign products such as wine, olive oil, Roman and Indian coins, and bronze lamps.As these goods were exchanged over trade networks, new ideas were also traded. The Aksum elite adopted aspects of Greek culture. This included the language and religious beliefs. The local reigion of Aksum began as animistic (a belief in many spirits that exist in the natural world). Later it became more formalized into a belief in gods that were tied to astronomy. Deities such as Mahrem (the king of gods and god of war), Astar (Venus), and Behēr (god of the sea) were honored with animal sacrifices and rituals. As trade networks grew and Aksum gained power, connections between the empire and the Roman Empire (Byzantium) became stronger. Christianity had recently become the state religion of the Roman Empire. It probably made its way to Aksum along these networks. According to some historical sources, the Aksum royal children had a Greco-Phoenician tutor named Frumentius. These sources indicate Frumentius may have influenced the royal family to adopt Christianity. As tutor to the royal family, he introduced the heirs to the throne to this faith. He eventually became the Bishop of Aksum. Full conversion of the empire probably happened gradually over many decades. Local customs were often incorporated intothe Christian faith.DeclineAksum continued to prosper long after the Western Roman Empire declined in the fifth century CE. However, its desire to expand was part of its own downfall. Aksum launched a series of military campaigns to control Yemen in thesixth century CE. But they began to run out of funds. At the same time, the Aksum
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader136elite were fighting among each other. Around 541 CE, Aksum was hit with the destructive Justinianic Plague. Scholars are fairly certain this plague was the same disease thatcaused the Black Death in the fourteenth century CE. Aksum held on mainly due to its profits from trade, but its territory and community shrank.Note: This original version of this article is from the Big History Project (lesson 7.1). It has been modifiedfor WHP.SourcesEhret, Christopher. The Civilizations of Africa: A history to 1800. Oxford: James Currey Publishers, 2002.Hatke, George. Aksum and Nubia: Warfare, Commerce, and Political Fictions in Ancient Northeast Africa. New York: New York University Press, 2013.Indicopleustes, Cosmas. The Christian Topography of Cosmas, an Egyptian Monk. Translated and edited by J.W. McCrindle. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010.Kobishanov, Y.M. “Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century.” In General History of Africa, Volume II: Ancient Civilizations of Africa (381-400). London: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd., 1981.Mekouria, Tekle Tsadik. “Christian Aksum.”In General History of Africa, Volume II: Ancient Civilizations of Africa (381-400). London: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd., 1981.Munro-Hay, Stuart. Aksum: An African Civilization of Late Antiquity. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1991. Phillipson, David. Ancient Ethiopia, Aksum: Its Antecedents and Successors. London: British Museum Press, 1998.Phillipson, David. “The First Millennium BC in the Highlands of Northern Ethiopia and South-Central Eritrea: A Reassessment of Cultural and Political Development.” African Archaeological Review 26 (2009): 257-74.Phillipson, David. Foundations of an African Civilization: Aksum and the Northern Horn, 1000 BC –AD 1300. Addis Abba: Addis Ababa University Press, 2012.Schoff, Wilfred, ed. The Periplus of Erythraean Sea. Charleston, SC: BiblioBazaar, 2014.Author BioDavid Baker studied his PhD in Big History under Professor David Christian at Macquarie University. He now teaches Big History alongside Fred Spier and Esther Quaedackers at the University of Amsterdam. He is writer of the YouTube series Crashcourse Big History, hosted by John and Hank Green in partnership with the Big History Project.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader137Ancient Agrarian Societies: Aksum (920L)David BakerIntroductionHumans originated in East Africa, making it the homeland of all humans. In East Africa, one of the mightiest agrarian societies formed: the Aksum Empire. The empire was at its strongest during the third century CE. Some ancient writers considered it one of the four great powers of the world, alongside Rome, Persia, and China.African agriculture got a late start. In 3000 BCE, early humans in West Africa invented agriculture on their own. One of the reasons for this "late start" is that human communities in this area had many resources available. Theycould forage and raise animals. Some communities were also reluctant to shift to agriculture. This change would mean a less healthy and more work-filled life.Collective Learning from Two Agrarian Networks Agriculture began in the Fertile Crescent. This is an area that includes modern-day countries like Egypt and Iraq. But the nearby "Northern Horn" region of East Africa continued foraging for thousands of years. As agrarian societies in the Fertile Crescent grew larger, they had more communication with the Northern Horn. The communities of the Northern Horn learned about agriculture from Egypt and Southwest Asia. By 2000 BCE, most communities in the Northern Horn were semi-nomadic. They made use of foraging, farming, and pastoralism. They still used stone tools, as copper and bronze were rare in the region. However, eventually, they began to use iron. Some people in the region still foraged without making the shift to farming. But farming knowledge from Southwest Asia and Egypt eventually moved along trade networks. To the south, the rest of Africa would transition to farming much more slowly. But East Africa was influenced by their location between these two major trade networks.Early East African statesAround the same time, a major agrarian society known as D'mt arose in the Northern Horn. This kingdom reached its height between the tenth and fifth centuries BCE. Due to their trade connections with Egypt, they began developing more sustained farming. When the kingdom of D'mt fell, the area was full of small kingdoms like Aksum. Aksum was just a tiny settlement in the Northern Horn for many years. But something changed in 30 BCE. Under Augustus, the Romans conquered Egypt. This brought Aksum into contact with the Roman world in the Mediterranean. Aksum began focusing less on trade networks in the Persian Gulf and Asia. Instead, they began focusing on trade networks over the Red Sea, which connected the Roman Empire and India. Aksum at the center of Afro-EurasiaBecoming a member of this trade network transformed Aksum from a small state into a powerful kingdom. Aksum managed trade between India and the Mediterranean. It traded in gold, spices, exotic animals, and much more. In the first century CE, Aksum became very wealthy and powerful. They could afford to build a strong navy to patrol the Red Sea and protect their trade routes. By the first century CE, experts had begun writing about Aksum's wealth and power.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader138Aksum grew quickly. Many monuments were built, as well as detailed tombs for important members of society. Aksum also had stone columns called stelae. The stelae have carvings that suggest the Aksum had a social hierarchy for ranking people in society. Archeologists have found Aksum coins hundreds of miles away in places like Rome and India. This proves that the Kingdom of Aksum was part of an immense trade network. Aksum was able to transport troops and expand its frontiers with naval power. The third century CE marks a period of intense military expansion. At its height, Aksum controlled North Ethiopia and parts of Sudan. They had the wealth to buy swords and ships, and there were no other kingdoms in East Africa to challenge them. Aksum was in the center of an ancient trade network that connected Africa, Europe, and Asia, making it easy for themto learn about new technologies. Social and political history of AksumAksum eventually controlled an important region of trade. Aksum was made up of smaller kingdoms with their own king, but the Aksum king was considered the "king of kings." The smallerkingdoms gave him a payment called tribute. In order to keep these regional kings from uprising, the Aksum king stationed warriors in each kingdom. Then the Aksum king would meet with the kings of the small kingdoms for them to pledge support their support and pay tribute. Agriculture and herding were the main ways the Aksum kingdom made money. As the population grew, certain cities did too. The city of Aksum became the main center for kings and the royal court. The city of Adulis grew into a large markettown where goods from other parts of Africa were traded for goods from Rome and India. New ideas were traded, too. The upper-class Aksum adopted parts of Greek culture. Aksum religion also changed. It began as animism, the belief in many different spirits. It later changed to include gods inspired by the stars and planets. As Aksum grew, so did its trade connections with the Roman Empire. Christianity had recently become the state religion of the Roman Empire, and it eventually becomes the official religion of Aksum, too. Christianity probably made its way to Aksum along these trade networks. Christianity linked Aksum with the Roman Empire.According to some historical sources, the Aksum royal children had a tutor from the Roman Empire named Frumentius. Frumentius may have influenced the royal family to adopt Christianity. It probably took several decades for Aksum to fully become Christian. However, Aksum still incorporated its traditions into Christianity.DeclineAksum continued to prosper long after the Western Roman Empire declined in the fifth century CE. However, its desire to expand partially led to its downfall. In the sixth century CE, Aksum ran out of money for its conquests. At the same time, the Aksum elites were fighting among each other. Around 541 CE, Aksum was hit with the Justinianic Plague. Scholars are fairly certain this plague was the same disease that caused the Black Death in the fourteenth century CE. Aksum survived on its profits from trade, but its territory shrank. Note: This original version of this article is from the Big History Project (lesson 7.1). It has been modified for WHP.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader139Ancient Agrarian Societies: Aksum (830L)David BakerIntroductionEast Africa is the homeland of all humans. One of the mightiest agricultural societies formed there: the Aksum Empire. The empire was at its strongest during the third century CE. Some ancient writers considered it one of the four great powers of the world, alongside Rome, Persia, and China.Agriculture got a late start in Africa. In 3000BCE, early humans in West Africa discovered agriculture on their own. One of the reasons for this "late start" is that communities in this area already had many resources. Many foraged and raised animals. Some communities were also reluctant to shift to agriculture. This change would mean a less healthy and more work-filled life.Collective Learning from Two Agrarian Networks Agriculture began in the Fertile Crescent. This area includes modern-day countries like Egypt and Iraq. Thousands of years later, the Fertile Crescent grew larger and had more communication with the Northern Horn. The communities of the Northern Horn learned about agriculture from Egypt and Southwest Asia. By 2000 BCE, most communities in the Northern Horn were semi-nomadic. They made use of foraging, farming, and pastoralism. They still used stone tools, as copper and bronze were rare in the region. However, eventually, they began to use iron. Some people in the region still foraged without making the shift to farming. But farming knowledge from Southwest Asia and Egypt eventually moved along trade networks. To the south, the rest of Africa would transition to farming much more slowly. But East Africa was influenced by their location between these two major trade networks.Early East African statesAround the same time, a major agrarian society known as D'mt arose in the Northern Horn. This kingdom reachedits height between the tenth and fifth centuries BCE. Due to their trade connections with Egypt, they began developing more sustained farming. When the kingdom of D'mt fell, the area was full of small kingdoms like Aksum. For many years, Aksum was just atiny settlement in the Northern Horn. Then in 30 BCE, something changed. The Romans conquered Egypt. This brought Aksum into contact with the Roman world in the Mediterranean. Many trade networks began focusing less on trade networks in the Persian Gulf and Asia. Instead, they focused on trade networks over the Red Sea, which connected the Roman Empire and India. Aksum at the center of Afro-EurasiaWhen Aksum joined this trade network, it became a powerful kingdom. Aksum managed trade between India and the Mediterranean in gold, spices, exotic animals, and much more. In the first century CE, Aksum became very wealthy and powerful. They could afford to build a strong navy to patrol the Red Sea and protect their trade routes. By the first century CE, expertshad begun writing about Aksum's wealth and power.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader140Aksum grew quickly. Many monuments were built. Aksum also had stone columns called stelae. The stelae have carvings that suggest the Aksum had a social hierarchy for ranking people in society. Archeologists found Aksum coins hundreds of miles away in places like Rome and India. This proves that the Aksum trade network was very large. During the third century CE, Aksum began using its military to grow even more. Aksum was one of the true powers of the ancient world. They had the wealth to buy swords and ships. There were no other kingdoms in East Africa to challenge them. Aksum was in the center of an ancient trade network that connected Africa, Europe, and Asia. This made it easy for them to learn about new technologies. Social and political history of AksumAksum controlled an important region of trade. Aksum was made up of smaller kingdoms, each with their own king. However, the Aksum king was the "king of kings." The smaller kingdoms gave him a payment called tribute. The Aksum king put warriors in these smaller kingdoms to keep them from rebelling. He would also meet with the kings to collect tribute. Agriculture and herding were the main ways the Aksum kingdom made money. As the population grew, certain cities did too. The city of Aksum became the main center for kings and the royal court. The city of Adulis grew into a large market town for trading goods.New ideas were traded, too. The upper-class Aksum adopted parts of Greek culture. Aksum religion also changed. It began as animism, a belief in many different spirits. It later changed to include gods inspired by the stars and planets. As Aksum grew, so did its trade connections with the Roman Empire. The Roman Empire had just made Christianity its official religion, and it eventually became the official religion of Aksum. Christianity probably made its way to Aksum along these trade networks. The religion linked Aksum with the Roman Empire.According to some historical sources, the Aksum royal children had a tutor from the Roman Empire named Frumentius. Frumentius may have influenced the royal family to adopt Christianity. However, Aksum still blended its traditions with Christianity.DeclineThe kingdom of Aksum continued even after the Western RomanEmpire fell in the fifth century CE. However, its desire to expand led to its downfall. In the sixth century CE, Aksum ran out of money for its conquests. Upper-class Aksum people were fighting each other. Around 541 CE, Aksum was hit with the JustinianicPlague. Experts believe this plague was the same disease that caused the Black Death in the fourteenth century CE. Aksum survived off of profits from trade, but its territory shrank. Note: This original version of this article is from the Big History Project (lesson 7.1). It has been modified for WHP.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader141Ancient Agrarian Societies: Aksum (740L)David BakerIntroductionOne of the mightiest agricultural societies formed in East Africa. It is called the Aksum Empire. The empire was strongest during the 200s CE. Some ancient writers believed it was one of the four great powers of the world. The other three were Rome, Persia, and China.Agriculture started late in Africa. In 3000 BCE, early humans in West Africa discovered agriculture on their own. One reason forthis late start is that communities in this area already had other resources. Many foraged and raised animals. Some communities also avoided agriculture. They believed agriculture would make life less healthy and enjoyable. Collective Learning from Two Agrarian NetworksAgriculture began in the Fertile Crescent. This area includes modern-day countries like Egypt and Iraq. Thousands of years later, the Fertile Crescent grew larger. It had more communication with the Northern Horn. The communities of the Northern Horn learned about agriculture from Egypt and Southwest Asia. By 2000 BCE, most communities in the Northern Horn were semi-nomadic. They made use of foraging, farming, and pastoralism. They still used stone tools, as copper and bronze were rare in the region. But they eventually began to use iron. Some people in the region still foraged without making the shift to farming. But farming knowledge from Southwest Asia and Egypt eventually moved along trade networks. To the south, the rest of Africa started farming slowly. But East Africa was influenced by their location between these two major trade networks. Early East African statesAround the same time, there was an agricultural society in the Northern Horn. It was called D'mt. This kingdom reached its height between 1000 and 500 BCE. When D'mt fell, the area was full of small kingdoms like Aksum. For many years, Aksum was just a tiny settlement in the Northern Horn. Then in 30 BCE, something changed. The Romans conquered Egypt. This brought Aksum into contact with the Mediterranean. Aksum began focusing less on trade in the Persian Gulf. Instead, they focused on trade in the Red Sea, which connected India and the Roman Empire.Aksum at the center of Afro-EurasiaAksum managed trade between India and the Mediterranean. It traded in gold, spices, exotic animals, and much more. This trade helped Aksum quickly become a powerful kingdom. Many monuments were built in Aksum. It also had stone columns called stelae. Carvings on the stelae show the Aksum had a social hierarchy for ranking people in society. Archeologists have also found Aksum coins hundreds of miles away in places like Rome and India. This shows that Aksum participated in a large trade network.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader142During the 200s CE, Aksum began using its military to grow even larger. Aksum was one of the true powers of the ancient world. They could afford swords and ships. There were no other kingdoms in East Africa to challenge them. Aksum was in the center of an ancient trade network that connected Africa, Europe, and Asia. This made it easy for them to learn about new technologies. Social and political history of AksumAksum was made up of smaller kingdoms, each with their own king. However, the Aksum king was the "king of kings." The smaller kingdoms gave him a payment called tribute. The Aksum king put warriors in these smaller kingdoms to keep them from rebelling. Agriculture and herding were the main ways the Aksum kingdom made money. As the population grew, certain cities did too. The city of Aksum became the main centerfor kings and the royal court. The city of Adulis grew into a large market town.New ideas were traded, too. The upper-class Aksum adopted parts of Greek culture. Aksum religion also changed. It began as a belief in many different spirits. It later changed to include gods inspired by the stars and planets. As Aksum grew, so did its trade connections with the Roman Empire. Christianity had recently become the state religion of the Roman Empire. Later, it also became the official religion of Aksum. Christianity probably came to Aksum on trade networks. Christianity linked Aksum with the Roman Empire.Some historical sources say the Aksum royal children had a tutor from the Roman Empire named Frumentius. Frumentius may have influenced the royal family to adopt Christianity. However, Aksum still blended its traditions with Christianity.DeclineThe kingdom of Aksum continued even after the Western Roman Empire fell in the 400s CE. However, its desire to expand ended up destroying it. In the 500s CE, Aksum ran out of money for its conquests. Upper-class Aksum people were fighting each other. Around 541 CE, Aksum was hit with the Justinianic Plague. Experts believe this plague was the same disease that caused the Black Death in the 1300s CE. Aksum survived off profits from trade, but its territory shrank. Note: This original version of this article is from the Big History Project (lesson 7.1). It has been modified for WHP.Ancient Agrarian Societies: Aksum (610L)David BakerIntroductionAksum began in East Africa. It was strongest during the 200s CE. Some ancient writers believed it was one of the four great powers of the world. The other three were Rome, Persia, and China.Agriculture started late in Africa. It began in West Africa in 3000 BCE. There are many reasons for the late start. One is that communities in Africa could forage and raise animals. Other communities avoided agriculture. They did not want to live a life with so much work.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader143Collective Learning from Two Agrarian NetworksAgriculture began in the Fertile Crescent. This area includes modern-day countries like Egypt and Iraq. The Fertile Crescent eventually grew. It connected Egyptian and Southwest Asian trade networks with the Northern Horn. The Northern Horn is a part of East Africa. It is near the Fertile Crescent.East Africa learned about agriculture first. It took longer to reach other parts of Africa. By 2000 BCE, agriculture had begun in the Northern Horn. Most communities farmed, herded, and foraged. Early East African statesAt that time, there was an agricultural society in the Northern Horn called D'mt. When D'mt fell, the area was full of small kingdoms like Aksum. At first, Aksum was just a tiny settlement. Then in 30 BCE, the Romans conquered Egypt. This brought Aksum into contact with the Mediterranean. Aksum began trading less in the Persian Gulf. Instead, they focused on trade in the Red Sea. This trade network connected India and the Roman Empire.Aksum at the center of Afro-EurasiaAksum managed trade between India and the Mediterranean. Trade helped Aksum quickly become a powerful kingdom. There were many monuments in Aksum. Archaeologists have studied stone columns from Aksum. The columns show how the Aksum ranked members of their society. Archeologists have found Aksum coins hundreds of miles from Aksum. This shows that Aksum was part of a large trade network. Aksum used its military to grow the empire. Aksum was one of the true powers of the ancient world. There were no other East African kingdoms to challenge them. Aksum was also in the center of an important trade network. This network connected Africa, Europe, and Asia. This made it easy for Aksum to learn about new technologies. Social and political history of AksumAksum was made of smaller kingdoms. Each had their own king. However, the Aksum king was the "king of kings." The smaller kingdoms gave him a payment called tribute. The Aksum king put warriors in these smaller kingdoms to control them.Most of Aksum's money came from agriculture and herding. Aksumcities also grew as the population grew. The trade routes also brought Aksum new ideas. The upper-class Aksum adopted parts of Greek culture. Aksum religion also changed. At first, Askum believed in spirits. Later, Christianity became the religion of Aksum. When Aksum grew, it began trading more with the Roman Empire. It learned about Christianity from the Romans. The Romans had just made Christianity their religion. Christianity linked Aksum with the Roman Empire.Some historical writings tell another story. The Aksum royal children had a tutor named Frumentius. He was from the Roman Empire. Frumentius may have influenced the royal family to adopt Christianity. However, Aksum mixed their traditions with Christianity.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader144DeclineIn the end, Askum's goal of growing caused it to fail. In the 500s CE, Aksum ran out of money for its military. Upper-class Aksum people were fighting each other. Around 541 CE, Aksum was hit with a wave of the disease called the Justinianic Plague. Experts believe the disease was the same as the Black Death. The Black Death happened about 800 years later. Aksum survived off profits from trade. However, the empire shrunk.Note: This original version of this article is from the Big History Project (lesson 7.1). It has been modified for WHP.Ancient Agrarian Societies: Nok SocietyWe have few written records to tell us about complex agricultural societies in West Africa. But archaeological evidence proves they existed as at least as far back as 2000 years ago! The Nok society is one of these.Ancient Agrarian Societies: Nok Society (1010L)Trevor R. GetzIntroductionWe usually learn of Ghana and Mali as the first complex societies in West Africa. But these states are recorded as existing after the tenth century CE (about a thousand years ago). Agriculture, however, emerged in West Africa possibly as long as 4,000 years ago. Before that time, people lived in the Sahara. Today the Sahara is a desert, but then it was a vast grassland. They herded cattle and ate wild grasses. But as the world began to dry, these people were driven into river valleys. They began to cultivate the wild grasses so that they would have enough food to eat. By 2000 BCE, foods like pearl millet, barley, and cattle were sustaining dense populations.What if Ghana and Mali were the first complex societies in West Africa? That would mean 3,000 years had passed between the beginning of farming and the growth of any kind of state. This seems unlikely. Unfortunately, we don't have many written records to tell us that there were large and complex societies in this part of Africa before the tenth century. There are many possible reasons for this. First, this region suffered a number of invasions and a great deal of conflict in later years that may have destroyed some records. Second, this is a region where history was often maintained through oral tradition (or spoken words), rather than writing. In fact, part of the reason we know about Ghana and Mali is through writings from Muslims from North Africa. These Muslims had crossed the Sahara Desert to this region by the tenthcentury and recorded what they found. But even though we don't have written records for earlier societies, we do have a great many archaeological remains. These tell us quite a bit about complex African societies before the tenth century. One of these societies was Nok, in the northern part of today's country of Nigeria.Iron, terracotta, and NokArchaeologist Bernard Fagg was working around the town of Jos, in Northern Nigeria, when he first found hundreds of terracotta sculptures. These sculptures of brownish-red pottery all exhibited a similar style. There were human figures with long heads, almond-shaped eyes, and elaborate hairstyles. The styles were somewhat similar to those worn by some Nigerians today. Many of the figures showed common human
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader145experiences: love, sickness, music, and war. The depictions of love are among the most interesting. For example, there is a sculpture of a man and a woman kneeling in front of each other, with their arms wrapped around each other. There was also quite a lot of jewelry and useful pots.Then, Bernard Fagg discovered something else. This was a discovery he had not expected—iron furnaces. At that time, it was believed that the technology to create iron had only been invented once, in Eurasia. The common belief was that iron technology did not spread to Africa until much later. But Fagg was able to date charcoal inside these furnaces as far back as 280 BCE. Later archaeologists dated some of it to an even earlier period, perhaps 500 BCE. Also, there were many furnaces, suggesting a dense population. Most interesting, archaeologists have been able to show that stone and iron tools were in use at the same time. They have also demonstrated that the people of Nok may have developed iron smelting technology on their own, rather than learning it from someone else.Nok societyNoksociety was not built around cities. Instead, they tended to live in lots of settlements, possibly each centered around an extended family. Each settlement probably had its own farm and its own cattle, and most of the work would have been agricultural, aswe know from the many grain-grinding stones and other tools found in every house. Women likely did most of the work in transforming crops into food. We don't know this for sure, but archaeologists have found terracotta figures that depict men as the ones working with iron.Both the making of terracotta and iron may have happened in these settlement sites. We think this is true because both metal slag from iron-making and bits of terracotta have been found in some settlements. We don't know if everyone could make these things or if they were made by specialists in the community. More terracotta waste has been found than iron, which may indicate that this was a specialized craft. There is some evidence that there may have been a specialist guild or class for making terracotta, because so much of it is stylistically the same, but not all experts agree.Archaeologists have also uncovered sites that seem to have been used for religious or spiritual rituals. Some sites were located where one large sculpture was intentionally left or buried in the ground. This suggests it may have been a marker or shrine. Sometimes, there are five or six similar sculptures. These sites are almost always far away from settlements, suggesting they were shared locations for worship or ritual. They may have played a role in the governing of this society. People might have met at these sites to make agreements or hear disputes. Certainly, there is no evidence of kingship or palaces or even temples to signify a ruling class.The final kindof site associated with Nok culture are furnaces. These were distinct sites, away from settlements or ritual sites, where iron was made. As we said above, some iron may have been made in households, but most of it was produced and worked in these furnace sites. It is possible that there were expert blacksmiths that may have had a different class status.ConclusionsWe do not know what happened to the Nok. Their terracotta style seems to have died out somewhere around 100 CE. They may be the ancestors of the modern Yoruba culture of Nigeria.We do believe that the Nok were one of many complex societies that lived in this region before Ghana and Mali. But we know little about them. These societies may have traded with each other, although we don't
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader146have a lot of evidence to prove it. However, we are constantly learning more about this era in African history. We are finding out that it had societies similar to other agrarian cultures around the world, but that were also unique.SourcesAtwood, Roger. “The NOK ofNigeria.” Archaeology 64, no. 4 (2011): 34-38.Breunig, Peter and Nicole Rupp. “An Outline of Recent Studies of the Nigerian Nok Culture.” Journal of African Archaeology 14, no. 3 (2016): 237-55.Author BioTrevor Getz is a professor of African and world history at San Francisco State University. He has been the author or editor of 11 books, including the award-winning graphic history Abina and the Important Men, and has coproduced several prize-winning documentaries.Trevor is also the author of A Primer for Teaching African History, which explores questions about how we should teach the history of Africa in high school and university classes.Ancient Agrarian Societies: Nok Society (970L)Trevor R. GetzIntroductionWe usually learn of Ghana and Mali as the first complex societies in West Africa. These empires are recorded as existing after the tenth century CE (about 1,000 years ago). Agriculture, however, emerged in West Africa possibly as long as 4,000 years ago. Before that time, people lived in the Sahara. Today the Sahara is a desert, but back then it was a vast grassland where people herded cattle and ate wild grasses. As the world began to dry, these people were driven into river valleys. They began to grow the wild grasses so that they would have enough food to eat. By 2000 BCE, foods like millet, barley, and cattle were supporting dense populations.What if Ghana and Mali were the first complex societies in West Africa? That would mean 3,000 years had passed between the beginning of farming and thegrowth of any kind of state. This seems unlikely. Unfortunately, we don't have many written records to tell us that there were complex societies in this part of Africa before the tenth century. There are many possible reasons for this. First, this region suffered a great deal of conflict in later years that may have destroyed some records. Second, this is a region where history was often maintained through oral tradition (or spoken words), rather than writing. In fact, part of the reason we know about Ghana and Mali is through writings from Muslims from North Africa. These Muslims had crossed the Sahara Desert to this region by the tenth century and recorded what they found. Even though we don't have written records for earlier societies, we do have a greatmany archaeological remains. These tell us quite a bit about complex African societies before the tenth century. One of these societies was Nok, in the northern part of what is now Nigeria.Iron, terracotta, and NokArchaeologist Bernard Fagg was working around the town of Jos, in Northern Nigeria, when he first found hundreds of terracotta sculptures. These sculptures of brownish-red pottery all had a similar style. There were human figures with long heads, almond-shaped eyes,and elaborate hairstyles. The styles were
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader147somewhat similar to those worn by some Nigerians today. Many of the figures showed common human experiences such as love, sickness, music,and war. The depictions of love are among the most interesting. For example, there is a sculpture of a man and a woman kneeling in front of each other, with their arms wrapped around each other. There was also quite a lot of jewelry and useful pots.Then Fagg discovered something else. It was a discovery he had not expected –iron furnaces. At that time, itwas believed that the technology to create iron had only been invented once, in Eurasia. The common belief was that iron technology did not spread to Africa until much later. However, Fagg was able to date charcoal inside these furnaces as far back as 280BCE. Later archaeologists dated some of it to an even earlier period, perhaps 500 BCE. Also, there were many furnaces, suggesting a dense population. Most interesting, archaeologists have been able to show that stone and iron tools were in use at the sametime. The people of Nok may have developed iron technology on their own, rather than learning it from someone else.Nok societyNok society was not built around cities. Instead, people tended to live in lots of settlements, possibly each centered around an extended family.Each settlement probably had its own farm and its own cattle, and most of the work would have been agricultural. Archaeologists know this fromthe many grain-grinding stones and other tools found in every house. Women likely did most of the work in transforming crops into food. We don't know this for sure, but archaeologists have found terracotta figures that show men as the ones working with iron.Archaeologists have also uncovered sites that seem to have been used for religious or spiritual ceremonies. Some sites were located where one large sculpture was intentionally left or buried in the ground. This suggests it may have been a marker or shrine. Sometimes, there are five or six similar sculptures. These sites are almost always far away from settlements, suggesting they were shared by different groups for worship. They may have played a role in the governing of society. People might have met at these sites to make agreements or hear disputes. However, there is no evidence of kingship orpalaces, or even temples, to signify a ruling class. The final kind of site associated with Nok culture is furnaces. These were distinct sites, away from settlements, where iron was made. Some iron may have been made in households, but most of it was produced in these furnace sites.ConclusionsWe do not know what happened to the Nok. Their terracotta style seems to have died out somewhere around 100 CE. The Nokmay be the ancestors of the modern Yoruba culture of Nigeria.We believe that the Nok were one of many complex societies that lived in this region before Ghana and Mali. However, we know little about them. These societies may have traded with each other, although we don't have a lot of evidence to prove it. We are constantly learning more about this era in African history, though. We are finding out that it had societies similar to other farming cultures around the world, but which were also unique.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader148Ancient Agrarian Societies: Nok Society (850L)Trevor R. GetzIntroductionWe usually learn of Ghana and Mali as the first complex societies in West Africa. These empires are recorded as existing after the 900s (about 1,000 years ago). However, agriculture emerged in West Africa possibly as long as 4,000 years ago. Before that time, people lived in the Sahara. Today the Sahara is a desert, but back then it was a vast grassland. People herded cattle and ate wild grasses. As the world began to dry, these people were driven into river valleys. They began to grow the wild grasses so that they would have enough food to eat. By 2000 BCE, foods like millet, barley, and cattle were supporting large populations.What if Ghana and Mali were the first complex societies in West Africa? That would mean 3,000 years had passed between the beginning of farming and the growth of any kind of state. This seems unlikely. Unfortunately, we don't have many written records about this part of Africa before the 900s. There are many reasonsfor this. First, this region suffered a great deal of conflict in later years that may have destroyed some records. Second, this is a region where history was often maintained through oral tradition. People remembered the past through spoken words rather than writing. Part of the reason we know about Ghana and Mali is through writings from Muslims from North Africa. They had crossed the Sahara Desert to this region and recorded what they found. Even though we don't have written records for earlier societies, we do have many archaeological remains. These tell us quite a bit about African societies before the 900s. One of these societies was Nok, in the northern part of what is now Nigeria.Iron, terracotta, and NokBernard Fagg was an archaeologist. He was working around the town of Jos, in Northern Nigeria, when he first found hundreds of terracotta sculptures. These sculptures of brownish-red pottery all had a similar style. There were human figures with long heads and elaborate hairstyles. The styles were somewhat similar to those worn by some Nigerians today. Many of the figures showed common human experiences such as love, sickness, music, and war. The depictions of love are among the most interesting. For example, there is a sculpture of a man and a woman kneeling in front of each other. There was also quite a lot of jewelry and useful pots.Then Fagg discovered something else, something he had not expected. There were iron furnaces. At that time, archaeologists believed that the technology to create ironhad only been invented once, in Eurasia. The common belief was that iron technology did not spread to Africa until much later. However, Fagg was able to date charcoal inside these furnaces as far back as 280 BCE. Later archaeologists dated some of it to an even earlier period. There were many furnaces, suggesting a large population. The people of Nok may have developed iron technology all on their own.Nok societyNok society was not built around cities. Instead, people tended to live in lots of settlements. Each settlement probably had its own farm, and most of the work would have been agricultural. Women likely did most of the work in turning crops into food. Archaeologists believe that men were the ones who worked with iron.Archaeologists have also uncovered sites that seem to have been used for religious ceremonies. Some sites were located where one large sculpture was intentionally left or buried in the ground. This suggests it may have been a marker or shrine. Sometimes, there are five or six similar sculptures. These sites are almost
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader149always far away from settlements. It's possible that different groups shared these sites for worship. The sites may also have played a role in government. People might have met there to make agreements or hear disputes. However, there is no evidence that the Nok had kings palaces, or temples. The Nok also had special sites for furnaces. These were distinct areas, away from settlements, where iron was made. Some iron may have been made in households, but most of it was produced in these furnace sites.ConclusionsWe do not know what happened to the Nok. Their terracotta style seems to have died out somewhere around 100 CE. The Nok may be the ancestors of the modern Yoruba culture of Nigeria.The Nok were one of many complexsocieties that lived in this region before Ghana and Mali. However, we know little about them. These societies may have traded with each other, although we don't have much evidence to prove it. We are constantly learning more about this period in African history, though. We are finding out that it had societies similar to other farming cultures around the world.Ancient Agrarian Societies: Nok Society (700L)Trevor R. GetzIntroductionWe usually learn that Ghana and Mali were the first complex societies in West Africa. These empires did not exist until after the 900s. However, farming emerged in West Africa much earlier. Scientists believe people were farming here as early as 4,000 years ago. Before that time, people lived in the Sahara. Today the Sahara is a desert, but back then it was a grassland. People herded cattle and ate wild grasses. As the world began to dry, these people moved into river valleys. They began to grow crops so they would have enough food to eat. Foods like millet and barley were grown. Cattle were raised. By 2000 BCE, these foods helped support large populations.What if Ghana and Mali were the first complex societies in West Africa? That would create a puzzle for scientists. It would mean that 3,000 years passed between the beginning of farming and the growth of any kind of state. This seems unlikely. Unfortunately, we don't have many written records about this part of Africa before the 900s. There are many reasons for this. First, this region suffered a great deal of conflict in later years. That may have destroyed some records. Second, this is a region where history was often kept through oral tradition. People remembered the past through spoken words rather than writing.Nevertheless, we do have evidence from the past such as physical remains. They tell us quite a bit about early African societies. One of these societies was Nok, in the northern part of what is now Nigeria.Iron, terracotta, and NokBernard Fagg was a scientist. He was working in Nigeria when he first found hundredsof clay sculptures. These sculptures of brownish-red pottery all had a similar style. There were human figures with long heads and elaborate hairstyles. The styles were somewhat similar to those worn by some Nigerians today. Many of the figures showed common experiences such as love and war. There was also quite a lot of jewelry.Then Fagg discovered something else, something he had not expected. There were iron furnaces. At that time, scientists believed that the technology to make iron had only been invented once, in Eurasia. They believed that iron technology did not spread to Africa until much later. Fagg studied the charcoal inside the
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader150furnaces. He was able to date it as far back as 280 BCE. Later scientists dated some of it to an even earlier period. There were many furnaces, suggesting a large population. The people of Nok may have developed iron technology all on their own.Nok societyNoksociety was not built around cities. Instead, people tended to live in lots of settlements. Each settlement probably had its own farm, and most of the work would have been agricultural. Women likely did most of the work in turning crops into food. Scientists believe that men were the ones who worked with iron.Scientists have also found sites that seem to have been used for religious ceremonies. Some sites were located around one large sculpture. It may have been a marker or a shrine. Sometimes, there are five or six similar sculptures. These sites are almost always far away from settlements. It's possible that different groups shared these sites for worship. The sites may also have played a role in government. People might have met there to make agreementsor hear disputes. However, there is no evidence that the Nok had kings or palaces. ConclusionsWe do not know what happened to the Nok. Their clay style seems to have died out somewhere around 100CE. The Nok may be the ancestors of the modern Yoruba culture of Nigeria.The Nok were one of many early societies that lived in this region. However, we know little about them. These societies may have traded with each other, but we don't have much evidence to prove it. We are constantly learning more about this period in African history, though. We are finding out that there were many early societies. They were similar to other farming cultures around the world.Ancient Agrarian Societies: Nok Society (580L)Trevor R. GetzIntroductionMany complex societies have existed in West Africa. We usually learn that Ghana and Mali were the first. They did not exist until about 1,000 years ago. However, farming began in West Africa much earlier. It may have started as early as 4,000 years ago. Before that time, people lived in the Sahara. Today, the Sahara is a desert. Back then, it was a grassland. People herded cattle and ate wild grasses. Later, these people moved into river valleys. They began to grow crops so they would have enough to eat. Foods like millet and barley were grown. Cattle were raised. By 2000 BCE, these foods helped support large populations.What if Ghana and Mali were the first complex societies here? That would create a puzzle for scientists. It would mean farming began long before any kind of society. This seems unlikely. Unfortunately, we do not have many written records of this time. We do have some physical evidence, though. It tells us quite a bit about early African societies. One of these was the Nok. It was located in the northern part of whatis now Nigeria.Iron, terracotta, and NokBernard Fagg was a scientist. He was working in Nigeria when he made an important discovery. He found hundreds of clay sculptures. They were human figures with long heads. Many of the figures showed common experiences such as love and war. There was also quite a lot of jewelry.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader151Then Fagg discovered something else. It was something he had not expected to find. There were iron furnaces. At that time, scientists thought that the technology to make iron had only been invented once. They believed that iron was first made in Eurasia. Fagg studied the charcoal inside the furnaces. He was able to date it as far back as 280 BCE. Later, scientists dated some of it to an even earlier period. The people of Nok may have developed iron technology all on their own.Nok societyNok society was not built around cities. Instead, people tended to live in lots of settlements. Each settlement probably had its own farm. Women likely did the work of turning crops into food. Men were probably the ones who made iron.Scientists have also found other important sites. They seem to have been used for religious ceremonies. These sites are almost always far away from settlements. It is possible that different groups met there. They may have sharedthese sites for worship. These sites may have also played a role in government. However, there is no evidence of kings or palaces in Nok. ConclusionsWe do not know what happened to the Nok. Their clay style seems to have died out about 1,900 years ago. The Nok may be the ancestors of the Yoruba. They are a modern culture in Nigeria.The Nok were one of many early societies in this region. However, we know little about them. These societies may have traded with each other. We do not have much evidence to prove it, though. Still, we are constantly learning more about this time in African history. There were many early societies here. They were similar to other farming cultures around the world.Ancient Agrarian Societies: Indus River ValleyMore clues would have been nice, but ancient artifacts from the Indus River Valley (3500-1700 BCE), plus some current technology, still tell a story of big cities and a sophisticated society.Ancient Agrarian Societies: Indus River Valley (1160L)Bridgette Byrd O’ConnorIntroductionThe society of the Indus River Valley (now Pakistan and northern India) was rediscovered by archaeologists in the late nineteenth century. Substantial digs that began in the 1920s have provided lots of artifacts from the people who lived here, but their writing remains a mystery. Therefore, we are left to make conclusions based on the evidence that we do have, namely archaeological, anthropological, artistic, and more recently, genetic studies.What we do know is that the major cities of this society were well organized and technologically advanced. These agricultural communities shared common bonds based upon religious or spiritual beliefs and language
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader152and trade networks. The society appears to have suffered a decline around 1700 BCE. Historians and archaeologists continue to debate the causes of this decline.Harappa and Mohenjo-daro (c. 3500—1700 BCE)The two largest cities of the Indus River Valley society that have been unearthed are Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, both located in modern-day Pakistan. While the cities are about 400 miles from each other, they have interesting similarities. Some areas of the cities are constructed on mounds that provided protection from flooding and could have also been used as defensive positioning. The streets were laid out in a grid with elaborate well systems to deliver fresh water to the inhabitants. An advanced drainage system could dump sewage outside of the city near the agricultural fields. Neither city had a central palace or temple structure, so it's possible this society was run by a number of wealthy families rather than a central ruler. The production and distribution of goods seemed to be the top priority of those who lived in this society. Trade networks were extensive and goods traveled back and forth from the Indus cities to local areas and to more distant locations such as Mesopotamia.Each city's population has been estimated from 40,000 to 60,000, and with numbers that high farming was an essential priority,if they were to feed everyone. The area that these culturally connected cities encompassed was much larger than the contemporary city-states of Mesopotamia and the society that had formed in Egypt.Both cities began as small agrarian communities that alsoproduced handcrafted items such as beads and metal work. These cities grew over time to become important trading areas. As their wealth grew, so did their size. More mounds were added with structures for producing goods, along with residential areas. Theyput in roads that allowed wheeled carts to move through the city for trade, and some expanded to two-lane roads that could accommodate even more traffic. (Yes, traffic, four thousand years ago, already begging the question whether or not progress is a good thing.)Writing, trade, and spiritual beliefsThe most significant forms of writing that we have of these societies also have to do with trade. Thousands of stamp seals61have been found that have a variety of animals and decorations on them. While the script on these seals has yet to be deciphered (translated), some images show up more than others. More than 65 percent of the seals found depict a unicorn. Other seals with real animals have also been uncovered. Archaeologists believe that the animal motifs represented a wealthy family or person. These would have been used to mark their goods for trading purposes. It's possible that some of the seals had religious significance. For example, the seated male figure below that is shown with a horned headdress appears often. He may be a god but we don't know for certain.The same theory holds true for the female figure (shown below at right) that is strangling two tigers. Archaeologists, however, haven't found any evidence of a central temple for the worship of gods. It may be that religious beliefs were more personal for these communities. Without a translation of the Indus script, scholars can only speculate. These symbols and images bear similarities with those of other cultures in the area. The image of a god-like figure strangling wild beasts such as tigers can also be found in the 61Stamp seals were carvings made in stone that were then used to stamp (make impressions) in soft clay that was then hardened.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader153Mesopotamian Epic of Gilgamesh62. This may be evidence of the sharing of ideas and beliefs through trade networks.Researchers have also found pottery with some of the same markings as those on seals, suggesting an additional connection between the seals and wealthy families involved in trade. Furthermore, small tablets with the Indus script and symbols have been found. Linguists believe that these could be a numbering or accountingsystem. Interestingly, a lot of the tablets were broken in half, so they may have been business contracts where each party received half of the tablet as proof of the transaction—a rock receipt.Trade networks were certainly at their height between 2600 and 1900 BCE. A multitude of items from different societies, dating to that period, have been found in the region. The beautiful blue stone called Lapis lazuli and metals such as gold, silver, and tin have all turned up in Harappa. These would have traveledfrom areas such as modern-day Afghanistan and Iran. Harappan pottery, seals, and weights have been found in many contemporary societies such as those in Mesopotamia. From about 1900 BCE, some of the main cities experienced changes in habitation and population, though despite more evidence discovered in recent decades, historians still don't know why these changes occurred. Or rather—surprise, surprise—they don't agree.Decline? Invasion? Transition?The inhabitants of Mohenjo-daro abandoned the city about the same time Harappa declined (or at least deurbanized). According to environmental historians and geographers, the river that supplied fresh water to Mohenjo-daro changed course, and that would have been a good reason to abandon the city. Archaeologists have noticed a decline in the maintenance of drains and roads in Harappa from about 1900 BCE. They believe that this may have been the result of resources being spread too thin due to the effects of decreased trade, overpopulation, and climate change.For many years, scholars theorized that Indo-Europeans invaded the Indus River Valley region. We do have evidence of a group of Indo-Europeans from the Eurasian steppes moving into the Indian subcontinent. They brought their language, knowledge, and the use ofhorses and chariots, which were pretty high-tech at the time. Modern genetic studies63show that, rather than invading, the Indo-Europeans migrated and assimilated with the indigenous people of the Indian subcontinent. But they did not cause the population to decline or shift, as far as we can tell.Today, the most accepted theory is that a combination of environmental factors such as climate change, shifting tectonic plates, and a change in the course of rivers contributed to the abandonment of some cities like Mohenjo-daro and the shift in population of others like Harappa. The Indus River Valley communities did not die out or collapse. Populations migrated in some areas and trade declined but the culture endured and transformed for many more years.62According to most scholars, the Epic of Gilgamesh is the oldest surviving work of literature (2100 BCE).63Note that these genetic studies can be controversial. Additional data is most certainly neededbefore making conclusions about these ancient migrations.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader154SourcesAllchin, Bridget and Raymond Allchin. The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1982.Kenoyer, Jonathan M. “The Indus Valley Tradition of Pakistan and Western India.” Journal of World Prehistory 5, no. 4 (1991): 331-385.Kenoyer, Jonathan M. “Trade and Technology of the Indus Valley: New Insights from Harappa, Pakistan.” World Archaeology 29, no. 2 (1997): 262-280.Kenoyer, Jonathan M. “Uncovering the Keys to the Lost Indus Cities.” Scientific American 289, no. 1 (2003): 66-75. Lewis-Kraus, Gideon. “Is Ancient DNA Research Revealing New Truths—or Falling Into Old Traps?” The New York Times Magazine, January 1, 2019. Accessed 20 February 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/01/17/magazine/ancient-dna-paleogenomics.htmlPossehl, Gregory L. “The Transformation of the Indus Civilization.” Journal of World Prehistory 11, no. 4 (1997): 425-472.Reich, David. Ancient DNA and the New Science of the Human Past: Who We Are and How We Got Here. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018.Roach, John. “Mohenjo Daro: ‘Faceless’ Indus Valley City Puzzles Archaeologists.” National Geographic. Accessed 20 February 2019. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/archaeology/mohenjo-daro/Author BioBridgette Byrd O’Connor holds a DPhil in history from the University of Oxford and has taught Big History, world history, and AP US government and politics for the past 10 years at the high school level. She is currently a writer and editor for the World History Project and the Big History Project. In addition, Bridgette has been a freelance writer and editor for the Crash Course world history and US history curricula.Ancient Agrarian Societies: Indus River Valley (1090L)Bridgette Byrd O’ConnorIntroductionIn the countries we now know as Pakistan and northern India once lived an ancient society of the Indus River Valley. Archaeologists rediscovered the group in the late nineteenth century. Since the 1920s, dig shave provided many artifacts from the people who lived here, but their writing remains a mystery. Therefore, we are left to make conclusions based on evidence that we do have, namely archaeological, anthropological, artistic, and more recently, genetic studies.What we do know is that the major cities of this society were well organized and technologically advanced. These agricultural communities shared common bonds based upon religious or spiritual beliefs and language and trade networks. The society appears to have declined around 1700BCE. Historians and archaeologists continue to debate the causes of this decline.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader155Harappa and Mohenjo-daro (c. 3500—1700 BCE)The two largest cities of the Indus River Valley society that have been unearthed are Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, both located in modern-day Pakistan. The cities are about 400 miles from each other but have interesting similarities. Some areas are constructed on mounds that provided protection from flooding and could have also been used as defensive positioning. The streets were laid out in a grid with elaborate well systems to deliver fresh water to inhabitants. An advanced drainage system could dump sewage outside of the city near the agricultural fields. Neither city had a central palace or temple structure, so it's possible this society was run by several wealthy families rather than a central ruler. The production and distribution of goods seemed to be their main focus. Trade networks were broad and goods traveled back and forth from the Indus areas and places further out, such as Mesopotamia.Each city's population has been estimated from 40,000 to 60,000. With numbers that high, farming was an essential priority, if they were to feed everyone. These culturally connected cities encompassed an area much larger than the modern city-states of Mesopotamia and the Egyptian society.Both cities began as small farming communities that also produced handcrafted items such as beads and metal work. These cities grew over time to become important trading areas. As their wealth grew, so did their size. More mounds were added with structures for producing goods, along with residential areas. They put in roads that allowed wheeled carts to move through the city for trade. Some expanded to two-lane roads that could accommodate even more traffic. (Yes, traffic, 4000 years ago, already begging the question whether or not progress is a good thing.)Writing, trade, and spiritual beliefsThe most significant forms of writing that we have of these societies also involve trade. Thousands of stamp seals64have been found that have a variety of animals and decorations on them. While the script on these seals hasn't been translated, some images show up more than others. More than 65 percent of the seals found show a unicorn. Other seals with real animals have also been uncovered. Archaeologists believe that the animal motifs represented a wealthy family or person. These would have been used to mark their goods for trading purposes. It's possible that some of the seals had religious significance. For example, the seated male figure below that is shown with a horned headdress appears often. He may be a god, but we are not sure.The same theory holds true for the female figure (shown below at right) that is strangling two tigers. Archaeologists, however, haven't found any evidence of a central temple for the worship of gods. It may be that religious beliefs were more personal for these communities. Without a translation of the Indus script, scholars can only speculate. These symbols and images have similarities withthose of other cultures in the area. The image of a god-like figure strangling wild beasts such as tigers can also be found in the Mesopotamian Epic story of Gilgamesh65. This may be evidence that ideas and beliefs got shared through trade networks.Researchers have also found pottery with some of the same markings as those on seals, suggesting an additional connection between the seals and wealthy families involved in trade. Furthermore, small tablets 64Stamp seals were carvings made in stone that were then used to stamp (make impressions) in soft clay that was then hardened.65According to most scholars, the Epic of Gilgamesh is the oldest surviving work of literature (2100 BCE).
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader156with the Indus script and symbols have been found. Language experts believe that these could be a numbering or accounting system. Interestingly, many of the tablets were broken in half. They may have been business contracts where each party received half of the tablet as proof of the transaction—a rock receipt.Trade networks certainly peaked between 2600 and 1900 BCE. Many items from different societies, dating to that period, have been found in the region. The beautiful blue stone called Lapis lazuli and metals such as gold, silver, and tin have all turned up in Harappa. These would have traveled from areas such as modern-day Afghanistan and Iran. Harappan pottery, seals, and weights have been found in many modern societies such as those in Mesopotamia. From about 1900 BCE, some of the main cities experiencedchanges in habitation and population. Still, despite more evidence discovered in recent decades, historians still don't know why these changes occurred, or they don't agree on the reasons.Decline? Invasion? Transition?The inhabitants of Mohenjo-daro abandoned the city about the same time Harappa declined, or people left the cities. According to environmental historians and geographers, the river that supplied fresh water to Mohenjo-daro changed course. That would have been a good reason to leave. Archaeologists have noticed a decline in the maintenance of drains and roads in Harappa from about 1900 BCE. They believe that this may have been the result of resources being spread too thin due to the effects of decreased trade, overpopulation, and climate change.For many years, scholars theorized that Indo-Europeans invaded the Indus River Valley region. We do have evidence of a group of Indo-Europeans from the Eurasian steppes, or grasslands, moving into the Indian subcontinent. They brought their language, knowledge, and horses and chariots, which were pretty high-tech at the time. Modern genetic studies66show that, rather than invading, the Indo-Europeans migrated and mixed in with the indigenous people of the Indian subcontinent. But they likely did not cause the population to decline or shift.Today, most scholars believe that environmental factors such as climate change, shifting tectonic plates, and a change in the course of rivers contributed to people leaving some cities like Mohenjo-daro and the shiftin population of others like Harappa. Tectonic plates are part of the outer layer of Earth known as the crust—large interlocking slabs that connect like puzzle pieces below our feet. The Indus River Valley communities did not die out or collapse. Populations migrated in some areas and trade declined but the culture endured and transformed for many more years.Ancient Agrarian Societies: Indus River Valley (980L)Bridgette Byrd O’ConnorIntroductionArchaeologists rediscovered the ancient societies of the Indus River Valley in the late nineteenth century. They lived in parts of what we now know as the Middle Eastern countries India and Pakistan. Digs that began in the 1920s have provided many artifacts from the people who lived here. Still, their writing remains a mystery. So, we are left to make conclusions based on the evidence that we do have: archaeological, 66Note that these genetic studies can be controversial. Additional data is most certainly needed before making conclusions about these ancient migrations.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader157anthropological, artistic, and more recently, genetic studies. Genes contain the information for how our bodies grow and function. They get passed down from parent to child.What we do know is that the major cities of this society were well organized and technologically advanced. These agricultural communities shared common bonds based upon religious or spiritual beliefs and language and trade networks. The society appears to have declined around 1700 BCE. Historians and archaeologists continue to debate the causes of this decline.Harappa and Mohenjo-daro (c. 3500—1700 BCE)The two largest cities of the Indus River Valley society that have been unearthed are Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, both located in modern-day Pakistan. The cities are about 400 miles from each other but have interesting similarities. Some parts are constructed on mounds that provided protection from flooding. They could have also been positioned that way to easily defend from attackers. The streets were laid out in a grid with elaborate well systems to deliver fresh water to people. An advanced drainage system could dump sewage outside of the city near the agricultural fields. Neither city had a central palace or temple structure. It's possible this society was run by several wealthy families rather than a central ruler. The production and distribution of goods seemed to be their main focus. Trade networks were broad and goods traveled back and forth from the Indus areas and places further out, such as Mesopotamia.Each city's population has been estimated from 40,000 to 60,000. With numbers that high, farming was necessary to feed everyone. These culturally connected cities encompassed an area much larger than the modern city-states of Mesopotamia and the Egyptian society.Both cities began as small farming communities. They also produced handmade items such as beads and metal work.These cities grew over time to become important trading areas. As their wealth grew, so did their size. More mounds were added with structures for producing goods, along with residential areas. They put in roads that allowed wheeled carts to move through the city for trade. Some expanded to two-lane roads that could accommodate even more traffic. (Yes, sadly, there was traffic back then, too.)Writing, trade, and spiritual beliefsThe most significant forms of writing that we have of these societies also have to do with trade. Thousands of stamp seals67have been found that have a variety of animals and decorations on them. While the script on these seals hasn't been translated, some images show up more than others. More than 65 percent of the seals found show a unicorn. Other seals with real animals have also been uncovered. Archaeologists believe that the animal motifs represented a wealthy family or person. These would have been used to mark their goods for trading purposes. It's possible that some of the seals had religious significance. For example, the seated male figure below that is shown with a horned headdress appears often. He may be a god, but we do not know for sure.The same theory holds true for the female figure (shown below at right) that is strangling two tigers. Archaeologists, however, haven't found any evidence of a central temple for the worship of gods. It may be that religious beliefs were more personal for these communities. The symbols and images appear similar to those of other nearby cultures. The image of a god-like figure strangling wild beasts such as tigers can also 67Stamp seals were carvings made in stone that were then used tostamp (make impressions) in soft clay that was then hardened.
WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 3-CITIES, SOCIETIES, AND EMPIRESText Reader158be found in the Mesopotamian Epic story of Gilgamesh68. This may be evidence that ideas and beliefs got shared through trade networks.Researchers have also found pottery with some of the same markings as those on seals. Such signs could suggest another connection between the seals and wealthy families involved in trade. Furthermore, small tablets with the Indus script and symbols have been found. Language scholars believe that these could be a numbering or accounting system. Interestingly, many of the tablets were broken in half. They may have been business contracts where each party received half of the tablet as proof of the deal—a rock receipt.Trade networks certainly peaked between 2600 and 1900 BCE. Very many items from different societies, dating to that period, have been found in the region. The beautiful blue stone called Lapis lazuli and metals such as gold, silver, and tin have all turned up in Harappa. These would have traveled from areas such as modern-day Afghanistan and Iran. Harappan pottery, seals, and weights have been found in many modern societies such as those in Mesopotamia. From about 1900 BCE, some of the main cities experienced changes in habitation and population. Still, despite more evidencediscovered in recent decades, historians still don't know why these changes occurred. Or they don't agree on the reasons.Decline? Invasion? Transition?The people of Mohenjo-daro deserted the city about the same time Harappa declined, or people left the cities. According to environmental historians and geographers, the river that supplied fresh water to Mohenjo-daro changed course. That would have been a good reason to leave town. Archaeologists have noticed less maintenance of drains and roads in Harappafrom about 1900 BCE. They believe that this may have been the result of resources being spread too thin. Decreased trade, overpopulation, and climate change were likely to blame.For many years, experts wondered if Indo-Europeans invaded the Indus River Valley region. We do have evidence of a group of Indo-Europeans from the Eurasian steppes, or grasslands. They moved into the Indian subcontinent—the area around what we now call India. They brought their language, knowledge, and horses and chariots, which were pretty high-tech at the time. Modern genetic studies69show that, rather than invading, the Indo-Europeans migrated and mixed in with the native people of the Indian subcontinent. But they likely did not cause the population to decline or shift.Today, most scholars believe that environmental factors such as climate change, shifting tectonic plates, and a change in the course of rivers contributed to the abandonment of some cities like Mohenjo-daro and the shift in population of others like Harappa. Tectonic plates are large interlocking slabs that connect like puzzle pieces below our feet, part of the outer layer of Earth known as the crust. The Indus River Valley communities did not die out or collapse. Populations migrated in some areas and trade declined. Still, the culture lived on and transformed for many more years.68According to most scholars, the Epic of Gilgamesh is the oldest surviving work of literature (2100 BCE).69Note that these genetic studies can be controversial. Additional data is most certainly needed before making conclusions about these ancient migrations.