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WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 6-THE LONG NINETEENTH CENTURY AND THE BIRTH OF THE MODERN WORLDText Reader1ERA 6—THE LONG NINETEENTH CENTURY AND THE BIRTH OF THE MODERN WORLDThis Word document contains ALL of the readings from the era. All readings include multiple copies at different Lexile levels. You are free to repurpose these materials as needed for your classroom. Please do remember to properly cite World History Project as the source. If you modify the text, it will change the lexile level. As always, only print what you need.We have included a short description, author bio, and source list with the highest lexile version only.ERA 6 OVERVIEW: THE LONG NINETEENTH CENTURY.................................................2SOVEREIGNTY..................................................................................................................12INGREDIENTS FOR REVOLUTION...................................................................................21THE ENLIGHTENMENT.....................................................................................................35THE ATLANTIC REVOLUTIONS.......................................................................................46ORIGINS AND IMPACTS OF NATIONALISM....................................................................60THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION......................................................................................71SCALE OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION...................................................................85THE GLOBAL TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION....................................................................................................................96JAPAN’S INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION............................................................................108EGYPT’S SHORT-LIVED INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION...................................................117INDUSTRIAL IMPERIALISM, THE “NEW” IMPERIALISM..............................................126RESPONSES TO INDUSTRIAL IMPERIALISM...............................................................136STRUGGLE AND TRANSFORMATION IN CHINA..........................................................151DUAL CONSCIOUSNESS................................................................................................166WHY WAS SLAVERY ABOLISHED?: THREE THEORIES.............................................181RISE OF THE PROLETARIAT.........................................................................................193CHILD LABOR AND REFORM MOVEMENTS.................................................................208A WORLD TOUR OF WOMEN’S SUFFRAGE.................................................................224RESPONSES TO INDUSTRIALIZATION.........................................................................244When viewing this document in Microsoft Word format, you can Ctrl+Click on the name of each article to go directly to the corresponding page in the reader.

WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 6-THE LONG NINETEENTH CENTURY AND THE BIRTH OF THE MODERN WORLDText Reader2Era 6 Overview: The Long Nineteenth CenturyIn this era, we will look at liberal political revolutions, the Industrial Revolution, modern imperialism, and the economic revolutions of capitalism and communism. Each of these changed the world in their own ways. But how widespread and how universal were these revolutions of the Long Nineteenth Century?Era 6 Overview: The Long Nineteenth Century (1090L)Trevor Getz and Bridgette Byrd O’ConnorThe length of time covered in Era 6—174 years—is both surprisingly short and unusually long. How can that be?It is surprisingly short because this era does in fact cover feweryears than any of the eras that came before. Look back, for example, to the first era of human history covered in this course (Era 2). It lasted for around 200,000 years, more than 500 times as long as Era 6! This decrease in length is partly because we know so much more about life in 1800 CE than life in 1800 BCE. But it's also because the pace of change had greatly accelerated by 1750 and so we have to bite off a shorter chunk of time to tell a big story.Yet, Era 6 also seems unusually long for a periodthat says it covers "the Long Nineteenth Century." After all, a century is only 100 years, not 174!You might ask, what's so special about this oddly specific period in time that it all gets lumped together as one era? Well, the answer is that historians generally agree that a specific set of changes happened during this period of time. These global changes involved the following:•the use of fossil fuels as energy •widespread new political systems with democratic features •the economic systems of capitalism and communism•the massive growth of factories and cities and the pollution and consumer culture that accompanied them•much more rapid communications through steamships, railroads, and the telegraph •modern imperialism and colonialism (and ideas about race and gender that justified these systems) •the scientific method and the changing worldviews that it supportedWe sometimes refer to these changes as "revolutions" because they were such great transformations that, together, they turned the world upside down and created the "modern" world of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries.What werethese engines of change that created the modern world? In this era, we will talk about them in four groups. First, we will look at liberal political revolutions. Then we will turn to the Industrial Revolution. Third, we will look at modern imperialism as a different kind of revolutionary change. Finally, we will focus on the economic and labor revolutions that produced capitalism and socialism. Each of these changed the world in their own ways, and not everybody was affected equally or in the same ways by these revolutions.

WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 6-THE LONG NINETEENTH CENTURY AND THE BIRTH OF THE MODERN WORLDText Reader3The liberal and Industrial RevolutionsLet's briefly introduce each of these four revolutions. First, we introduce the liberal revolution, a radical transformation that produced a new kind of political community: the nation-state. The word liberal emerged in this era from the Latin term liberalis, meaning "free man." By 1750, the idea that people (or at least some people) should have individual liberties (a word that also came from liberalis) was becoming increasingly popular. It was one result of a new way of looking at the world that also led to different ideas about government. One of these new political ideas held that free men should have a voice in governing themselves. Together, these ideas of individual liberty and participatory government led to political revolutions in which the power to govern changed hands—often from kings or emperors toa larger political class of citizens. These revolutions first occurred in areas around the Atlantic seaboard. These new ideas then spread and influenced other areas of the world.The liberal revolutions were about changes in the ways people thought. But the second revolution covered in this era, the Industrial Revolution shifted the way humans produced and distributed goods. Its origins were in scientific experimentation that enabled people to access new forms of energy for doing work. Until the eighteenthcentury, humans created energy sources using the power of human and animal labor, water and wind power, and by burning wood to generate heat. But by 1750, new sources of energy were discovered using coal and steam power. By the early nineteenth century, steam power generated fuel from burning coal far more efficiently. This discovery dramatically increased the amount of energy that humans could produce. The use of these fossil fuels to power increasingly complex machines changed the way we live and work. In 1500 CE, a single shirt required around 500 hours of human labor to produce. But steam engines automated aspects of weaving, sewing, and the spinning of yarn. With these advances, the amount of human labor required to produce a shirt dramatically decreased. More shirts (and many other goods) were available to more people at lower prices.The Industrial Revolution led to dramatic changes in human networks. For the first time, large numbers of people could travel long distances on steam-powered railroads and ships. This led to widespread migration. At the same time, a communication revolution made it much easier for information to travel over long distances. The invention of the telegraph allowed messages to travel nearly instantaneously across long distances. Finally, this revolution not only affected human life on Earth but also the Earth itself. At the start of Era 6, humans were mining and using about 10 million metric tons of coal. But 100 years later, worldwide production of coal increased to 130 million tons. And by the start of the twentieth century, humans were producing close to one billion tons. By this time, most of the world was using coal for 90% of its energy output. This expanded capacity to harness and utilize the Earth's resources led to better lives for many. But it also led to the pollution of air and water and decreased global biodiversity. It has altered the planet's climate in ways that will last for millions of years.Colonies, capitalism, and communismThe third revolution we look at inthis era was the birth of new empires and new types of colonialism. Despite ideas about individual freedom and political participation, this was an era that saw the birth of vast empires that were often highly un-participatory and restricted people's freedoms. These new empires often had colonies located quite far away from the nation that was exercising control over them, particularly in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific, but also in the Americas. With very few exceptions, the empires used these colonies as places from which to draw labor and resources to feed their own industries and enrich themselves. This left many colonies comparatively poor. This legacy of imperialism continues to shape the global economy today.

WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 6-THE LONG NINETEENTH CENTURY AND THE BIRTH OF THE MODERN WORLDText Reader4The building of vast empires was also deeply tied to changes in the global economic system. This was a fourth revolution—an economic revolution. The Long Nineteenth Century saw the full development of industrial capitalism. Individuals or groups of people could own vast amounts of assets. They could invest their money in companies to make profits. This system tended to concentrate wealth in the hands of business owners and investors. It also changed how people worked. Increasingly, people worked for wages that were paid every week or month. Capitalism may have helped to increase overall productivity in the world, but it also made working conditions difficult for many people. People—even children—labored on farms and plantations or in factories to increase profits. In response, many people began to push for reforms. They called for an end to child labor, to bad working conditions, and to slavery. Reform movements also called for new rights for women. One type of reformism proposed an alternate economic system called socialism that would be more centrally planned and worker-controlled than capitalism.One revolution, or many?The four revolutions described above were world-changing, but not everyone experienced these changes. Even those who did, experienced them in different ways. By 1800, the global population was 900 million. That's 900 million unique human stories to tell. Just a hundred years later, the world's population had nearly doubled to 1.75 billion people. Some of these people were factory workers, others were wealthy bankers. They lived in industrialized societies at the heart of empires. Still others labored on mines and plantations in colonies. They provided the raw materials to feed those factories. Some—particularly men—had the vote. They could participate in liberal democratic politics. Others could not. These groups included women, colonial subjects of large empires, people that did not own land, or groups that faced discrimination. Even the length of a life could be very different depending on these variables. In rich nations, the deathrate among children began to decline. This was the first consistent decline in child mortality in human history. In 1800, 46% of children born in the United States died before the age of five. In 1914, the mortality rate of children had dropped to 17.6%1. Better understanding of infectious diseases and the discovery of vaccines dramatically improved human health in the wealthier parts of the world. Combined with more available food this meant that in wealthy nations, more people were living longer and healthier lives. But this change was not equally shared. In areas colonized by European nations, for instance, child mortality and life expectancy barely shifted. In the British colonies of West Africa child mortality actually worsened from 1800 to 1914. The question of who shared in these modern revolutions, and how, can help us to understand the shape of difference, as well as the unity of human experience, entering the last era of our course.Author BiosTrevor Getz is a professor of African and world history at San Francisco State University. He has been the author or editor of 11 books, including the award-winning graphic history Abina and the Important Men, and has coproduced several prize-winning documentaries. Trevor is also the author of A Primer for Teaching African History, which explores questions about how we should teach the history of Africa in high school and university classes.Bridgette Byrd O’Connor holds a DPhil in history from the University of Oxford and has taught Big History, world history, and AP US government and politics for the past 10 years at the high school level. In addition, Bridgette has been a freelance writer and editor for the Big History Project and the Crash Course world history and US history curricula.1Today, every nation on Earth has a child mortality rate lower than 17.6%.

WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 6-THE LONG NINETEENTH CENTURY AND THE BIRTH OF THE MODERN WORLDText Reader5Era 6 Overview: The Long Nineteenth Century (1010L)Trevor Getz and Bridgette Byrd O’ConnorEra 6 covers 174 years, which is both a surprisingly short and unusually long amount of time. How can that be?This era covers fewer years than any of the eras that came before. Era 2,the first era of human history covered in this course, covered 200,000 years! The era is shorter because there is a big story to tell in such a short amount of time. We know more about life in 1800 CE than life in 1800 BCE. There's also more to discuss because the world was changing at a much faster pace during this time.Yet, Era 6 also seems unusually long for a period that says it covers "the Long Nineteenth Century." After all, a century is only 100 years, not 174!What's so special about this oddly specific period in time that it all gets lumped together as one era? Well, the answer is that historians generally agree that a specific set of changes happened during this period of time. These global changes involved the following:•the use of fossil fuels as energy •widespread new political systems with democratic features •the economic systems of capitalism and communism •the massive growth of factories, cities, pollution, and consumer culture •much more rapid communications through steamships, railroads, and the telegraph •modern imperialism and colonialism, as well as the ideas about race and gender that justified these systems •the scientific method and the changing worldviews that it supportedThese changes were so huge that we sometimes refer to them as "revolutions." They turned the world upside down and created the "modern" world of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries.In this era, we will talk about the revolutions in four groups. First, we will look at liberal political revolutions. Then we will turn to the Industrial Revolution. Third, we will look at modern imperialism as a different kind of revolutionary change. Finally, we will focus on the economic and labor revolutions that produced capitalism and socialism. Each of these revolutions changed the world in their own ways, and not everyone experienced them in the same way. The liberal and Industrial RevolutionsLet's briefly introduce the first revolution, the liberal revolution, a total transformation that produced a new kind of political community: the nation-state. By 1750, more and more people supported the idea that people should have individual liberties. This led to new ideas about government. Many believed free men should participate in governing themselves. These ideas led to political revolutions in which power moved from kings or emperors to the citizens.The liberal revolutions were about changes inthe ways people thought. But the second revolution covered in this era, the Industrial Revolution, was about changes in how humans made and distributed goods. The Industrial Revolution began around 1750 when scientists discovered how to use new forms of energy, like coal and steam power. These energy sources produced much more power than other sources, like animal

WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 6-THE LONG NINETEENTH CENTURY AND THE BIRTH OF THE MODERN WORLDText Reader6power and burning wood. All this new energy was used to power machines that changed how we lived and worked. In 1500 CE for example, it took 500hours of human labor to make one shirt. The machines of the Industrial Revolution significantly lowered the amount of human labor required to make shirts and other products. The products also became cheaper and available to more people. The Industrial Revolution led to huge changes in human networks. For the first time, large numbers of people could travel long distances on steam-powered railroads and ships. This led to widespread migration. A communication revolution also resulted in new technologies that made it easier to quickly send information over long distances. The revolution affected both humans and the Earth itself. By the 1900s, most of the world was using coal for 90 percent of its energy output. The use of coal power improved the lives of many workers. However, it also resulted in pollution that will continue to have an impact on the planet for millions of years. Colonies, capitalism, and communismThe third revolution was the birth of new empires and new types of colonialism in places like Asia and Africa. There were new ideas about individual freedom and political participation at this time. However, these ideas often did not apply to people living in colonies. The empires almost always used their colonies' labor and resources to make themselves richer. The colonies were left poor. The consequences of imperialism continue to shape the global economy today.The building of empires was also deeply tied to the fourth revolution, an economic revolution. The Long Nineteenth Century saw the full development of an economic system called industrial capitalism. Individuals or groups owned large amounts of property. They invested their money in companies with the hope of making even more money. This system tended to put most of society's wealth in the hands of business owners. It also changed how people worked. More people began working for wages. Capitalism helped to increase overall productivity in the world. However, it made working conditions difficult for many workers, including child workers. Many people began pushing to end child labor, poor working conditions, and slavery. Socialism was one idea people had for change. Socialism is an economic system that puts more power in the hands of workers.One revolution, or many?The four revolutions changedthe world. Still, people did not experience these revolutions in the same way. Some people were factory workers, while others were bankers. Some people could vote, but other people, such as women and colonial subjects, could not. Even the length of a lifecould be very different depending on these variables. Rich nations had access to more food and health discoveries like vaccines. The death rate of children under 5 in those countries dropped from 46 percent to 17.6 percent2between 1800 and 1914. In the European colonies, however, life expectancy and child mortality stayed the same or worsened. Looking at who shared in these modern revolutions helps us to understand how human experiences are united, but also different. 2Side note: Today, every nation on Earth has a child mortality rate lower than 17.6 percent.

WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 6-THE LONG NINETEENTH CENTURY AND THE BIRTH OF THE MODERN WORLDText Reader7Era 6 Overview: The Long NineteenthCentury (900L)Trevor Getz and Bridgette Byrd O’ConnorEra 6 covers a period of 174 years, which is both a surprisingly short and unusually long amount of time. How can that be?This era is shorter than any of the earlier eras. Era 2, for example, covered200,000 years! Era 6 is shorter because there is a big story to tell in a short amount of time. The world was changing much more quickly at this time. We also know more about life in 1800 CE than life in 1800 BCE. Still, Era 6 also seems unusually long. The period covers "the Long Nineteenth Century," but a century is only 100 years, not 174!What's so special about this time period? Why does it all get lumped together as one era? The answer is that historians agree that several specific changes happened during this time. These global changes involved the following:•the use of fossil fuels as energy •the spread of new political systems with democratic features•the economic systems of capitalism and communism •the massive growth of factories, cities, pollution, and consumer culture •much more rapid communications through steamships, railroads, and the telegraph •modern imperialism and colonialism, as well as the ideas about race and gender that justified these systems•the scientific method and the changing worldviews that it supportedThese changes were so huge that we sometimes refer to them as "revolutions." They turned the world upside down and created the "modern" world of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries.In this era, we will talk about the revolutions in four groups. First, we will look at liberal political revolutions. Then we will turn to the Industrial Revolution. Third, we will look at modern imperialism as a different kind of revolutionary change. Finally, we will focus on the economic and labor revolutions that produced capitalism and socialism. Each of these revolutions changed the world in their own ways, and not everyone experienced them in the same way. The liberal and Industrial RevolutionsThe first revolution is the liberal revolution. It was a revolution in how people thought. The liberal revolution produced a new kind of political community called a nation-state. By 1750, more and more people supported the idea that people should have individual liberties. This led to new ideas about government. Many believed free men should participate in governing themselves. These ideas resulted in political revolutions in which power moved from kings to citizens. The second revolution covered in this era is the Industrial Revolution. This revolution changed how humans made and distributed goods. The Industrial Revolution began around 1750. Scientists discovered how to use new forms of energy, like coal and steam power. These energy sources produced much more power than other sources like burning wood. All this new energy was used to power machines that changed how we lived and worked. Before the Industrial Revolution, it took 500 hours of human work to make one shirt. New

WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 6-THE LONG NINETEENTH CENTURY AND THE BIRTH OF THE MODERN WORLDText Reader8machines meant humans had to work fewer hours to make the same products. More people could buy the products because they were cheaper. The Industrial Revolution led to huge changes in human networks. New technologies like railroads allowed people to travel long distances. This led to widespread migration. A communication revolution resulted in new technologies that made it easier to quickly send information long distances. The revolution affected the Earth, too. By the 1900s, nearly 90 percent of the world's energy came from coal. Coal power improved the lives of many. However, it also caused pollution that will have an impact on the planet for millions of years. Colonies, capitalism, and communismThe third revolution was the birth of new empires and new types of colonialism in places such as Asia and Africa. There were new ideas about individual freedom and political participation at this time. However, these ideas often did not apply to people living in colonies. The empires almostalways used their colonies' resources to make themselves richer. The colonies were left poor. The effects of imperialism continue to affect world trade today.Empires were also deeply tied to the fourth revolution, an economic revolution. Industrial capitalism developed in The Long Nineteenth Century. It was an economic system. Individuals or groups owned large amounts of property. They would put their money into companies in hopes of making even more money. As a result, business owners usually had most ofthe money in society. Under industrial capitalism, people also began working for wages. Capitalism helped to increase production in the world. However, it made working conditions difficult for many workers, including child workers. Many people began pushing to end unfair work conditions. Socialism was one idea people had for change. Socialism is an economic system that puts more power in the hands of workers.One revolution, or many?The four revolutions changed the world. Still, people did not experience these revolutions in the same way. Some people were factory workers, while others were bankers. Some people could vote, but other people, such as women and colonial subjects, could not. These factors could even affect how long you lived. Rich nations had access to more food and medicine. The death rate of children under 5 in those countries dropped from 46 percent to 17.6 percent3between 1800 and 1914. But this change was not equally shared. In areas colonized by European nations, for instance, child mortality and life expectancy barely shifted. In the British colonies of West Africa child mortality actually worsened from 1800 to 1914.It's important to look at who shared in these modern revolutions and how. It helps us to understand how human experiencesare united, but also different. 3Side note: Today, every country on Earth has a child death rate lower than 17.6 percent.

WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 6-THE LONG NINETEENTH CENTURY AND THE BIRTH OF THE MODERN WORLDText Reader9Era 6 Overview: The Long Nineteenth Century (760L)Trevor Getz and Bridgette Byrd O’ConnorEra 6 covers a period of 174 years, which is both a surprisingly short and unusually long amount of time. How can that be?This erais shorter than any of the earlier eras. Era 2, for example, covered 200,000 years! Era 6 is shorter because there is a big story to tell in a short amount of time. The world was changing much more quickly at this time. We also know more about life in 1800 CE than life in 1800 BCE. Still, Era 6 also seems unusually long. The period covers "the Long Nineteenth Century," but a century is only 100 years, not 174!What's so special about this time period? Why does it all get lumped together as one era? The answer is that historians agree that several specific changes happened during this time. These global changes involved the following:•The use of fossil fuels as energy •The spread of new political systems with democratic features •The economic systems of capitalism and communism •The massive growth of factories, cities, pollution, and consumer culture •Much more rapid communications through steamships, railroads, and the telegraph •Modern imperialism and colonialism, as well as the ideas about race and gender that justified these systems•The scientific method and the changing worldviews that it supportedThese changes were so huge that we sometimes refer to them as "revolutions." They turned the world upside down. They created the "modern" world of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries.In this era, we will talk about the revolutions in four groups. First, we will look at liberal political revolutions. Then we will turn to the Industrial Revolution. Third, we will look at modern imperialism as a different kind of revolutionary change. Finally, we will focus on the economic and labor revolutions that produced capitalism and socialism. Each of these revolutions changed the world in their own ways. But not everyone experienced them in the same way. The liberal and Industrial RevolutionsThe first revolution is the liberal revolution. It was a revolution in how people thought. The liberal revolution produced a new kind of political community called a nation-state. By 1750, more and more people believed people should have individual liberties. This led to new ideas about government. Many believed free men should participate in governing themselves. These ideas resulted in political revolutions in which power moved from kings to citizens.The second revolution covered in this era is the Industrial Revolution. This revolution changed how humans made and distributed goods. The Industrial Revolution began around 1750. Scientists discovered how to use new forms of energy like coal and steam power. These energy sources produced much more power than other sources, like burning wood. All this new energy was used to power machines that changed how we lived and worked. Before the Industrial Revolution, it took 500 hours of human work to make one shirt. New

WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 6-THE LONG NINETEENTH CENTURY AND THE BIRTH OF THE MODERN WORLDText Reader10machines meant humans had to work fewer hours to make the same products. More people could buy the products because they were cheaper. The Industrial Revolution led to huge changes in human networks. New technologies such as railroads allowed people to travel long distances. This led to widespread migration. A communication revolution resulted in new technologies that made it easier to quickly send information long distances. The revolution affected the Earth, too. By the 1900s, nearly 90 percent of the world's energy came from coal. Coal power improved the lives of many. However, it also caused pollution that will affect the planet for millions of years. Colonies, capitalism, and communismThe third revolution was the birth of new empires and new types of colonialism in places such as Asia and Africa. There were new ideas about individual freedom and political participation at this time. However, these ideas often did not apply to peopleliving in colonies. The empires almost always used their colonies' resources to make themselves richer. The colonies were left poor. The effects of imperialism continue to affect world trade today.Empires were also deeply tied to the fourth revolution. This was an economic revolution. Industrial capitalism developed in The Long Nineteenth Century. Individuals or groups owned large amounts of property. They would put their money into companies in hopes of making even more money. As a result, business owners usually had most of the money in society. Under industrial capitalism, people also began working for wages. Capitalism helped to increase production in the world. However, it made working conditions difficult for many people, including child workers. Many people began fighting these unfair conditions. Socialism was one idea people had for change. Socialism is an economic system that puts more power in the hands of workers.One revolution, or many?The four revolutions changed the world. Still, people did not experience these revolutions in the same way. Some people were factory workers. Others were bankers. Some people could vote, but other people, such as women and colonial subjects, could not. These factors could even affect how long you lived. Rich nations had more food and medicine. The death rate of children under the age of 5 in those countries dropped from 46 percent to 17.6percent4between 1800 and 1914. But this change was not equally shared. In areas colonized by European nations, for example, child mortality barely changed. In the British colonies of West Africa child mortality actually worsened from 1800 to 1914. It's important to look at who shared in these modern revolutions and how. It helps us to understand how human experiences are united,but also different.4Side note: Today, every country on Earth has a child death rate lower than 17.6%.

WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 6-THE LONG NINETEENTH CENTURY AND THE BIRTH OF THE MODERN WORLDText Reader11Era 6 Overview: The Long Nineteenth Century (590L)Trevor Getz and Bridgette Byrd O’ConnorEra 6 covers a period of 174 years. It is both a surprisingly short and unusually long era. How can that be?This era is shorter than the earlier eras. For example, Era 2 covered 200,000 years! A lot happened in a short amount of time during Era 6. The world was changing quickly. We also have more information about this era than Era 2. Still, Era 6 also seems to be long. The period covers "the Long Nineteenth Century." However, we know that a century is only 100 years, not 174!So why is Era 2 174 years long? Well, historians agree that several specific changes happened during this time. These changes involved the following:•The use of fossil fuels as energy•New political systems where citizens could participate •The economic systems of capitalism and communism •Growing factories and cities •Much more rapid communications through steamships, railroads, and the telegraph •Modern imperialism and colonialism•The scientific method and the changing worldviews that it supportedThese changes were so huge we sometimes call them "revolutions." The revolutions created the "modern world" of the 1800s and 1900s.In this era, we will talk about four groups of revolutions. First, we will look at liberal political revolutions. Then we will turn to the Industrial Revolution. Third, we will look at modern imperialism. Finally, we will focus on the economic and labor revolutions. Each of these revolutions changed the world. However, not everyone experienced them in the same way. The liberal and Industrial RevolutionsThe first revolution is the liberal revolution. It was a revolution in how people thought. The liberal revolution created new governments called nation-states. Many believed people should have individual rights. They thought they should be able to participate in government. These ideas resulted in political revolutions. Power moved from kings to citizens. The second revolution is the Industrial Revolution. This revolution changed how humans made and distributed goods. Scientists discovered how to use better forms of energy, such as coal and steam. All this new energy was used to power machines. The Industrial Revolution changed how we lived and worked. Machines made it easier and faster to make goods. More people could buy goods because they were cheaper. The Industrial Revolution also changed human networks. People could travel with new technologies like railroads. More people began migratingto new places. There was also a communication revolution. New technologies made it easier to send information quickly to faraway places.

WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 6-THE LONG NINETEENTH CENTURY AND THE BIRTH OF THE MODERN WORLDText Reader12The revolutions affected the Earth, too. Many countries got most of their power from coal. Coal helped some people's lives. However, it also caused pollution that will affect the planet for millions of years. Colonies, capitalism, and communismThe third revolution was the birth of new empires and new types of colonialism. The individual liberties of the liberal revolution did not apply to colonies. Empires mostly used their colonies to make themselves richer. The colonies were left poor. The effects of imperialism affect world trade today.Empires were also deeply tied to the fourth revolution. It was an economic revolution. Industrial capitalism is an economic system. It developed in the Long Nineteenth Century. Many rich people put their money into businesses. They hoped to make more money. As a result, business owners had more money than other citizens. Many people also began working for pay. Capitalism made working conditions hard. Even children had to work. Many people began fighting to end these poor conditions. Socialism was one idea people had for change. Socialism is an economic system that puts more power in the hands of workers.One revolution, or many?The four revolutions changed the world. Still, people did not experience these revolutions in the same way. For example, some people worked in factories. Others were bankers. Some people could vote. Other peoplecould not. Even the length of your life could be different. Rich nations had more food and medicine. Almost half of children died by the age of 5 before the revolutions. Just 17.6 percent died after the revolutions.5But this change was not equally shared. In areas colonized by European nations, for example, child mortality barely changed. In the British colonies of West Africa child mortality actually worsened from 1800 to 1914. It is important to look at who shared in these modern revolutions and how. It helps us to understand how human experiences are united, but also different.SovereigntyA dictionary definition isn’t much help when trying to grasp the important concept of sovereignty. But understanding how radically it changed people’s personal and political lives is a good start.Sovereignty (1120L)Eman M. ElshaikhIntroductionIn the wake of the Enlightenment, many societies around the world pursued sovereignty—the right and the power of a person or a nation to govern themselves. Sovereignty is a broad term that influences many modern concepts such as identity, individuality, and rationality (the use of reason). These ideas developed 5Side note: Today, every country on Earth has a child death rate lower than 17.6 percent.

WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 6-THE LONG NINETEENTH CENTURY AND THE BIRTH OF THE MODERN WORLDText Reader13together during the long nineteenth century and were connected to the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment. Without the concept of sovereignty, however, they would make no sense.Sovereignty and liberal idealsThe long nineteenth century saw many changes including growing distrust in the authority of monarchs and religious institutions, and more interest in individualism, freedom, and rationality. These liberal political ideals (goals for perfection) generally placed a lot of importance on the people as a source of political power. One expression of this was the concept of popular sovereignty, the belief that a state's power comes from the consent of the people. According to these ideas, a government is only legitimate if it represents the needs and ideas of the people who are governed.In an absolute monarchy, sovereignty is in the hands of the king or queen. In other words, the state is whatever the monarch says it is. Popular sovereignty, on the other hand, views the state as a political organization that makes possible the ruling of a specific territory. The people within this type of state are usually not passive as subjects, but rather are citizens, with actual political rights. Rather than passively obeying the ruler, citizens could take an active role in the political process. This meant that popular sovereignty also encouraged the recognition of the individual and individual rights.Believe it or not, it was unusual to suggest that an individual who wasn't a ruler was rational and deserved autonomy, or self-governance. That meant that society and government were only legitimate when they helped individuals achieve their goals and protected their rights. Today we may take this for granted, but at the time this was a pretty new, even revolutionary concept.Sovereignty for whom?We must not confuse sovereignty with equality or civil rights. Although citizens had rights, that didn't necessarily mean that all citizens had the same rights in practice, or that everyone in a society could be considered a citizen. So, who got left out? A person's ability to participate in government—and to govern themselves—was often dependent on their class, race, and gender. Typically, in Europe and European colonies, only white land-owning males were truly independent. The conquered people of the colonies didn't become citizens. Similarly, enslaved people, working-class people, and women weren't given the same kinds of rights. In other words, personal sovereignty and autonomy were luxuries offered to a very small segment of society.In fact, in many ways, the achievement of sovereignty for some resulted in the loss freedom for others. For example, in several sovereign democracies like the United States, slavery was still legal, thriving, and important to the economy. Need a powerful example of how sovereignty does not mean equality? Just look at the American Three-Fifths Compromise of 1787. In this agreement, each enslaved person was counted as three-fifths of a full citizen for the purposes of determining representation (the right to vote) and taxation. In this case, the inclusion of enslaved people was seen as compatible with popular sovereignty for other people, but... three-fifths? Slavery is already fundamentally dehumanizing, but to have your humanity mathematically downgraded is one of history's most literal and glaring examples of inequality.Women, workers, and childrenThe same is true for most children. Middle-and upper-class families in Europe and the Americas got to enjoy new values of familial love and innocence. Educating your children instead of putting them to work was a

WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 6-THE LONG NINETEENTH CENTURY AND THE BIRTH OF THE MODERN WORLDText Reader14privilege. In places like Japan, children were seen as especially vulnerable, and there were many government programs designed to protect children during this fragile phase in life.However, if you weren't part of the small privileged class, or in Japan, it was another story. Under slavery and colonialism, children were forcibly separated from their parents. Enslaved children were sold, and indigenous children were sometimes sent away from their families. Also, within the colonies, many children of mixed heritage were born outside of marriage. Because of race laws and the realities of colonial hierarchies, mixed children would almost never get to be a part of a cohesive family unit.In colonial settings, many children were seen as the subjects of colonial masters, and working conditions could be pretty harsh. Whether through indentured labor or wage labor, children in Latin America, sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East, and India continued to labor in plantations, factories, and mines. They also often worked as household servants. In other parts of the world, like in China, classical values like obedience and hard work continued to shape children's lives.Women were also often left out when it came to personal sovereignty. Some Enlightenment thinkers still saw women as inferior to men, while others pushed for women's equality. However, women also differed across race, class, and region. Workingclass women, women of color, and colonial subjects didn't have access to these new social and educational opportunities. In most places, women of the lower classes took on new roles out of economic need. Many single mothers had to work to support their families.Citizenship and the modern subjectLet's not forget that all these cultural and social shifts were about much more than just a single issue. Rather, peoples' entire relationship to the state was being altered. Some found that the state now gave them freedom to control their lives and bodies, while others found they had less control. For example, women were increasingly valued as those responsible for raising the next generation of citizens. To educate their children and ensure their full political participation, mothers needed to be educated too. Motherhood became a political act! This created new opportunities for women, but it also meant that a woman's decision whether to have children at all was not necessarily hers to make.Children, too, came tobe controlled more—partly through schools. Schools tried to promote children's health and protect them from abuse, but also control their daily activity. In Canada, Australia, and the United States, governments often forced indigenous children into boarding schools. The purpose was to change behaviors that colonists saw as problematic. That usually meant getting them to adopt European traditions and customs and leave their own behind. Similarly, in British India, school was used to instill European values in students with the goal of making them more useful as colonial subjects.So, while Enlightenment ideas about citizenship, sovereignty, and autonomy changed the face of the globe, it's important to remember that these changes were very uneven. Through themodern period and into the twenty-first century, different groups of people have been included and excluded from these values. However, these ideas surrounding personal sovereignty have continued to influence many political institutions to this day.SourcesShachar, Ayelet, Rainer Bauböck, Irene Bloemraad, and Maarten Vink. The Oxford Handbook of Citizenship. New York: Oxford University Press, 2017.

WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 6-THE LONG NINETEENTH CENTURY AND THE BIRTH OF THE MODERN WORLDText Reader15http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198805854.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780198805854.Cooley, Nicole. “The History of Dollhouses.” The Atlantic.July 22, 2016. https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2016/07/dollhouses-werent-invented-for-play/492581/.Fass, Paula S. The Routledge History of Childhood in the Western World. New York: Routledge, 2013.Milne, Brian. The History and Theory of Children’s Citizenship in Contemporary Societies. New York: Springer, 2013. Roland Robertson, et al. The Oxford Handbook of Global Studies. New York: Oxford University Press, 2018.Stearns, Peter N. Childhood in World History. 2nd ed. New York: Routledge, 2011.----. Growing Up: The History of Childhood in a Global Context. Waco, TX.: Baylor University Press, 2005.Author BioEman M. Elshaikhholds an MA in social sciences from and is pursuing a PhD at the University of Chicago, where she also teaches writing. She is a writer and researcher, and has taught K-12 and undergraduates in the US and in the Middle East. Eman was previously a World History Fellow at Khan Academy, where she worked closely with the College Board to develop curriculum for AP world history.Sovereignty (1090L)Eman M. ElshaikhIntroductionThe Age of Enlightenment, or the Age of Reason, was an intellectual movement in eighteenth-century Europe that transformed politics, philosophy, and science. In the wake of the Enlightenment, many societies around the world pursued sovereignty, which is the right and the power of a person or a nation to govern themselves.Sovereignty is abroad term that influences many modern concepts such as identity, individuality, and rationality (the use of reason). These ideas developed together during the long nineteenth century, which refers to the time between the Enlightenment (c. 1750) and WorldWar I (1914). Without the concept of sovereignty, however, these ideas would make no sense.Sovereignty and liberal idealsThe long nineteenth century saw many changes, including growing distrust in the authority of monarchs and religious institutions, and more interest in individualism, freedom, and rationality. Enlightenment thinkers saw people as a source of political power. According to the belief of popular sovereignty, a state's power comes from the consent of the people and a government must represent the needs and ideas of the people who are governed.In an absolute monarchy, sovereignty is in the hands of the king or queen. The people are subjects who must obey the ruler. Under popular sovereignty, the people are citizens with actual political rights who can

WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 6-THE LONG NINETEENTH CENTURY AND THE BIRTH OF THE MODERN WORLDText Reader16take an active role in the political process. This meant that popular sovereignty encouraged the recognition of the individual and individual rights.Believe it or not, it was once unusual to suggest that an individual who wasn't a ruler deserved autonomy, or self-governance. Today we may take this for granted, but at the time this was a new concept.Sovereignty for whom?We must not confuse sovereignty with equality or civil rights. Although citizens had rights, that didn't necessarily mean that all citizens had the same rights. So, who got left out? A person's ability to participate in government was often dependent on their class, race, and gender. Typically, in Europe and European colonies, only white land-owning males received full rights. People who were conquered or enslaved didn't become full citizens. Working-class people and women weren't given the same kinds of rights as wealthy men. In other words, personal sovereignty and autonomy were luxuries offered to a small part of society.In many ways, the achievement of sovereignty for some resulted in the loss of freedom for others. For example, in the United States, slavery was still legal, thriving, and important to the economy.Need a powerful example of how sovereignty does not mean equality? When the American founders were writing the Constitution in 1787, they disagreed about whether enslaved people should be counted as part of the population. The number of people in each state would determine how many representatives the state received in Congress. They agreed to the Three-Fifths Compromise, which said that each enslaved person would be counted as three-fifths of a full citizen. Slavery is already fundamentally dehumanizing, but to have your humanity mathematically downgraded is one of history's most literal and glaring examples of inequality.Women, workers, and childrenChildren also faced unequal treatment. Middle-and upper-class families in Europe and the Americas were able to educate their children instead of putting them to work.However, if you weren't part of the small privileged class, it was another story. Under slavery and colonialism, children were forcibly separated from their parents. Many children of mixed heritage were born outside of marriage and would almost never get tobe a part of a together family unit.In colonial settings, many children were seen as the subjects of colonial masters. Children in Latin America, sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East, and India were forced to work under harsh conditions in plantations, factories, and mines.Women were also often left out when it came to personal sovereignty. Some Enlightenment thinkers still saw women as inferior to men, while others pushed for women's equality. The status of women also differed across race, class, and region. Working-class women, women of color, and colonial subjects didn't have access to these new social and educational opportunities. In most places, women of the lower classes took on new roles out of economic need. Many single mothers had to work to support their families.Citizenship and the modern subjectThese cultural and social shifts were about much more than just a single issue. Some found that the state now gave them freedom to control their lives and bodies, while others found they had less control. For example, women were increasingly valued for raising the next generation of citizens. To educate their

WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 6-THE LONG NINETEENTH CENTURY AND THE BIRTH OF THE MODERN WORLDText Reader17children, mothers needed to be educated, too. Motherhood became a political act! This created new opportunities for women. It also meant that a woman's decision whether to have children at all was not necessarily hers to make.Children were controlled more, partly through schools. The schools tried to promote children's health and protect them from abuse, but also control their daily activity. In Canada, Australia, and the United States, governments often forced the children of native people into boarding schools. The purpose was for them to adopt European traditions and customs and leave their own behind. Similarly, in British India, school was usedto instill European values in students to make them more useful as colonial subjects.Enlightenment ideas about citizenship, sovereignty, and autonomy changed the face of the globe. It's important to remember that these changes were very uneven. Differentgroups of people have been included and excluded from these values. However, these ideas surrounding personal sovereignty have continued to influence many political institutions to this day.Sovereignty (930L)Eman M. ElshaikhIntroductionThe Age of Enlightenment, or the Age of Reason, was a movement in the 1700s that transformed politics, philosophy, and science. Enlightenment thinkers challenged traditional authority. Many societies around the world pursued sovereignty after the Enlightenment. Sovereignty is the right of a person or a nation to govern themselves.Sovereignty is a broad term. It influences many modern concepts such as identity, individuality, and rationality (the use of reason). These ideas developed together during the long nineteenth century, which refers to the time between the Enlightenment (c. 1750) and World War I (1914). Without the concept of sovereignty, these ideas would make no sense.Sovereignty and liberal idealsThere was a growing distrust in the authority of monarchs and churches during the long nineteenth century. There was more interest in individualism, freedom, and rationality. Supporters of popular sovereignty believed that the people are the source of a state's power. The government must represent the needs and ideas of the people.Before the Enlightenment, many European countries were ruled by absolute monarchies, which means that a king or queen has total control. The people are subjects who have to obey the ruler. Under popular sovereignty, the people are citizens who have political rights and power. This meant that popular sovereignty encouraged individual rights.Believe it or not, it was once unusual to suggest that common individuals deserved to govern themselves. Today we may take this for granted, but at thetime this was a new concept.Sovereignty for whom?Popular sovereignty does not mean that people are all treated equally. Although citizens had rights, that didn't necessarily mean that all citizens had the same rights. People could have different rights based on

WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 6-THE LONG NINETEENTH CENTURY AND THE BIRTH OF THE MODERN WORLDText Reader18their class, race, and gender. People who were conquered or enslaved didn't become full citizens. Working-class people and women weren't given the same kinds of rights as wealthy men. In other words, the right of self-governing was only given to asmall part of society.In many ways, the achievement of sovereignty for some resulted in the loss of freedom for others. For example, the United States gained its independence from Great Britain, but kept slavery legal. Enslaved people were not given the rights of citizens. In fact, under the Constitution, each enslaved person was counted as three-fifths of a full citizen. It is one of history's most literal and glaring examples of inequality.Women, workers, and childrenChildren of the lower classes werealso not treated equally. Middle-and upper-class families in Europe and the Americas were able to educate their children instead of putting them to work. Under slavery and colonialism, however, children were forcibly separated from their parents. Children in Latin America, sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East, and India were forced to work under harsh conditions in plantations, factories, and mines.Women were also often left out when it came to personal sovereignty. Some Enlightenment thinkers still saw women as lesser than men, while others pushed for women's equality. Conditions for women could be different based on race, class, and region. Privileged women had new social and educational opportunities, but women of lower classes did not. Many single mothers had to work to support their families.Citizenship and the modern subjectThese cultural and social shifts were about much more than just a single issue. The way people lived under a state with popular sovereignty was changing. Some people found that the state now gave them freedom, while others found they had less control. For example, women had a bigger role in educating children, so they had to be educated, too. Motherhood became a political act! This created new opportunities for women. It also meant that a woman's decision whether to have children at all was not necessarily hers to make.Children were also controlled more, partly through schools. The schools helped and protected children, but they also controlled their daily activity. In Canada, Australia, and the United States, governments often forced the children of native people into boarding schools. The students were forced to change their behaviors and let go of their native customs.Enlightenment ideas about citizenship, sovereignty, and autonomy changed the face of the globe. It's important to remember that these changes were very uneven. Different groups of people have been included and excluded from these values. However, these ideas surrounding personal sovereignty have continued to influence many political institutions to this day.Sovereignty (800L)Eman M. ElshaikhIntroductionIn the 1700s, there was a movement that questioned traditional authority. It was called the Age of Enlightenment, or the Age of Reason. Many people pushed for sovereignty for themselves. Sovereignty is the right of a person or a nation to govern themselves.

WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 6-THE LONG NINETEENTH CENTURY AND THE BIRTH OF THE MODERN WORLDText Reader19Sovereignty is a broad term. It has an effect on concepts such as identity, individuality, and the use of reason. These ideas developed together between 1750 and 1914. Without the concept of sovereignty, these ideas would make no sense.Sovereignty and liberal idealsDuring the Enlightenment, many European countries were ruled by absolute monarchies. A king or queen has total control. After the Enlightenment, people challenged the power of monarchs and churches. There was more interest in individualism and freedom. Supporters of popular sovereignty believed that the people should have the political power. The government must represent the needs and ideas of the people.Under absolute monarchies, the people are subjects who have to obey the ruler. Under popular sovereignty, the people are citizens who have political rights and power. This meant that popular sovereignty encouraged individual rights.Believe it or not, it was once unusual to suggest that common individuals deserved to govern themselves. Today we may take this for granted, but at the time this was a new concept.Sovereignty for whom?Popular sovereignty does not mean that people are all treated equally. All citizens did not have the same rights. If differed based on class, race, and gender. People who were conquered or enslaved didn't become full citizens. Working-class people and women weren't given the same kinds of rights as wealthy men. In other words, the right of self-governing was only given to a small part of society.In many ways, one group achieving sovereignty resulted in another losing freedom. For example, the United States gained popular sovereignty when it broke free from Great Britain. It kept slavery legal, however. Enslaved people were not given the rights of citizens. In fact, each enslaved person was counted as three-fifths of a full citizen. It is one of history's most obvious examples of inequality.Women, workers, and childrenChildren were also not all treated equally. Wealthier children in Europe and the Americas were able to go to schools instead of working. Under slavery, however, children were taken from their parents. Children under colonial rule were forced to work under harsh conditions in plantations, factories, and mines.Women were also often left out when it came to personal sovereignty. Some Enlightenment thinkers still saw women as lesser than men, while others pushed for women's equality. Conditions for women could be different based on race, class, and region. Privileged women had new social and educational opportunities. Women of lower classes did not. Many single mothers had to work to support their families.Citizenship and the modern subjectPeoples' lives changed in many ways under popular sovereignty. Some people found that the state now gave them freedom, while others found they had less control. For example, women had a bigger role in educating children, so they had to be educated, too. Motherhood became apolitical act! This created new opportunities for women. It also meant that they had less control in deciding to have children.

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