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WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 7-THE GREAT CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCEText Reader1ERA 7—THE GREAT CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCE This Word document contains ALL of the readings from the era. All readings include multiple copies at different Lexile levels. You are free to repurpose these materials as needed for your classroom. Please do remember to properly cite World History Project as the source. If you modify the text, it will change the lexile level. As always, only print what you need.We have included a short description, author bio, and source list with the highest lexile version only.ERA 7 OVERVIEW: THE LAST 100 YEARS........................................................................3WHAT CAUSED THE FIRST WORLD WAR?....................................................................12THE FIRST WORLD WAR AS A GLOBAL WAR...............................................................22WORLD WAR I: A TOTAL WAR?......................................................................................32THE MEXICAN REVOLUTION...........................................................................................41THE POWER OF ONE: THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION......................................................54CAPITALISM AND WORLD WAR I....................................................................................64GLOBAL GREAT DEPRESSION.......................................................................................73FASCIST HISTORIES, PART I...........................................................................................85FASCIST HISTORIES, PART II: EXERCISING AUTHORITARIANISM...........................100THE SECOND WORLD WAR...........................................................................................111ECONOMICS IN THE SECOND WORLD WAR...............................................................123THE HOLOCAUST...........................................................................................................135NUCLEAR WEAPONS.....................................................................................................148THIRTY YEARS OF CONTINUOUS WAR........................................................................170DEVASTATION OF OLD MARKETS................................................................................183CONNECTING DECOLONIZATION AND THE COLD WAR............................................193THE COLD WAR: AN OVERVIEW...................................................................................205THE COLD WAR AROUND THE WORLD.......................................................................216AND THEN GANDHI CAME: NATIONALISM, REVOLUTION, AND SOVEREIGNTY................................................................................................................230DECOLONIZING WOMEN................................................................................................241INTRODUCTION TO GLOBALIZATION...........................................................................250INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS...................................................................................258RISE OF CHINA...............................................................................................................271

WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 7-THE GREAT CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCEText Reader2GOODS ACROSS THE WORLD......................................................................................283POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL TRENDS, 1880 TO THE PRESENT.........................................................................................................................298IS THE WORLD FLAT OR SPIKY?..................................................................................314WTO RESISTANCE..........................................................................................................327THE ZAPATISTAS IN MEXICO........................................................................................342THE TROUBLE WITH GLOBALIZATION........................................................................354THE ANTHROPOCENE....................................................................................................366WHY DOES GENOCIDE STILL HAPPEN?......................................................................381When viewing this document in Microsoft Word format, you can Ctrl+Click on the name of each article to go directly to the corresponding page in the reader.

WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 7-THE GREAT CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCEText Reader3Era 7 Overview: The Last 100 YearsThe world you live in and your own life experience is a product of many thousands of years of history. In this era, we ask, “How can we all be individuals and also part of one increasingly connected world?” How humans answer this question could shape our future. Understanding our shared human history, and its limits, is part of the process.Era 7 Overview: The Last 100 Years (1110L)Trevor Getz and Bridgette Byrd O’ConnorHow did we get here? How did "history"—the Paleolithic and Neolithic, Iron Age states, the Silk Road, "dark ages" and Enlightenment, revolutions and the Great Dying—all culminate in you and your fellow twenty-first-century humans? How can we make meaning from this history? The American writer Alice Walker once wrote, "All history is current." By that, she meant that we interpret the past to make meaning for the present. We want the past to be usable and relevant. How can youmake useof the past, to understand who you are today? How can you make use of it to think about where we are going in the future?One important question we can ask to make meaning from the past is about you. It's also about your relationship to every other human on the planet today. This question is: "Is there a collective human history?"This is a question that pertains to all of the eras in this course, but especially to Era 7, which covers the last hundred years or so. As we will discover when we explore this era, we live in an age of unprecedented globalization. Where once it was rare for our ancestors to travel more than a few miles from their farms or villages, we can now fly around the world in less than a day, create a video seen around the world in a few minutes, or text each other almost instantly. Where once our ancestors made almost everything they needed themselves, now our most complicated products are produced from materials sourced in over a dozen countries, and then worked on in several other countries before they make their way to us. We originated in numerous small language networks and communities of 100 people or fewer. But now we have trans-national institutions like the United Nations and the World Health Organization. These institutions have tied us all together in the last 100 years. We are connected as one network, one community, allowing us to hopefully solve problems and explore new opportunities together.But we are also living in an era of great conflict between peoples, and great differences in experiences. Much of the twentieth century seemed like one long, truly global conflict, vast inequality existed throughout this era (and continues to exist), and people are increasingly seeing globalization as a problem as much as it is a solution.So are we closer together, or further apart, than ever before?Are we better off?Historians and other researchers increasingly believe that conflict and inequality are problems that are related to how secure people feel economically, how safe they feel in their community, and how connected they are to each other. So, much of our exploration of this era looks at the question of whether people are becoming wealthier, safer, more secure, and more connected, or if instead, problems and challenges are growing.The evidence we find is mixed.

WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 7-THE GREAT CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCEText Reader4Era 7 begins with the First World War (1914-1918). This was a conflict that was considered unnecessary by many, and it resulted in enormous death and suffering. It was followed by a rise of authoritarianism—seen in communist, fascist, and nationalist leaders. Then came the terror of the Second World War (1939-1945) and the genocide known as the Holocaust. Victory for the Allies in that conflict left the United States and the Soviet Union as the two world powers. They quickly faced off in the Cold War (1948-1989) that lasted almost to the end of the century. The end of these global wars left horrendous problems in place. For example, suspicion still exists between the United States and the Soviet Union (now Russia). Another example is the ongoing conflicts in the decolonizing Middle East.All of these conflicts were tied to great inequality in the production and distribution of goods. Even today, wealth still often seems to accumulate in the hands of just a few, while many suffered. Large regions of the world—especially in Africa, southern Asia, and Latin America—continue to have high poverty rates. These patterns seem to be at least partly the result of long-term historical trends, such as enslavement and colonialism, whose effects are still felt today even after they have technically ended. Finally, even within wealthy societies, inequality means that some people had few opportunities.But perhaps the greatest challenge facing humans in the twenty-first century, however, is the growing threat posed by our over-use of Earth's resources. As human populations continued to increase over the past century, environmental effects worsened. Larger areas of forests were converted to farmland and the use of fossil fuels increased. This has led to a dramatic increase in pollution, including the release of billions of tons of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. This has contributed to the overall warming of our planet. Climate change is already reshaping human populations. It is changing weather patterns around the world. But its impact is only beginning to be felt. By moving plants and animals around, affecting the climate, reshaping the land, humans have become an important force in the changing of the biosphere. Somuch so that some scientists now argue we have entered a new geological era, the "Anthropocene". The Anthropocene is the era in which humans have become the single most important force shaping the biosphere.But the story of the twenty-first century, likethe larger story of history, is not a tale of inevitabilities. It doesn't have to endone way. By almost any measure, Era 7 hasseen marked human progress. You may learn of horrors in the news and feel that life is getting worse—most people certainly do. This is partly because there are many profound injustices in our world and calling attention to them is important. But it is also partly because bad news sometimes happens all at once and is often shocking and upsetting, whereas good news usually happens very slowly.For example, there is some evidence that poverty is declining, and that the benefits of broad economic growth are finally being felt by those living in poorer regions. As recently as 1970, most humans lived in so-called "absolute poverty". Thismeans they did not consistently have enough food and other resources to survive. One set of data suggests that today, only 10 percent of people live in absolute poverty. Not everyone agrees with these numbers precisely, but by many measures, life seems tohave improved broadly for humans over the last several decades. Child mortality has dropped faster since 1990 than at any time in human history. More children are in school, and a greater percentage of people can read and write than at any time in history. The rate of deaths by violence has been decreasing for six decades. These rates are probably the lowest they've ever been in our 250,000-year history. But of course, this story is not equally true for everyone, everywhere. Some regions have had greater positive change than others. In a few places, poverty and child mortality rates clearly remain the same or are even growing.

WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 7-THE GREAT CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCEText Reader5Globalization and youThe world you live in and your own life experience is a product of many thousands of years of history. But it is particularly influenced by the long nineteenth century revolutions. Industrialization, liberal political revolutions, imperialism, and economic transformations have had a significant influence. Members of your family may have served in the wars of the twentieth century, or been forced to move, or suffered deaths. You may have a family history influenced and shaped by empires, and by the economic ups and downs of the twentieth century. The jobs that your ancestors and parents worked were available (or notavailable) because of many of these same trends. The foods you eat may have been influenced by their migration patterns.All the great paradoxes of history remain with us. We have moved toward larger and more deeply connected communities. But in some ways, we have become less connected to each other. Humans used to live in tribes of dozens where parenting and other responsibilities were shared. Now we primarily live in smaller, so-called "nuclear" families. We have moved toward a world of more wealth and power available to humans. But many have been left behind and seen little of the benefit from that growth.In this context, there is great value in everyone pulling together to solve our shared problems. But there is also value in our individual stories, our family histories, and our local cultures. How humanity answers the question of how we can all be individuals, and communities, and yet part of one increasingly connected world will very likely shape our future. Understanding our shared human history, andits limits, is part of the process of answering this question.Author BiosTrevor Getz is a professor of African and world history at San Francisco State University. He has been the author or editor of 11 books, including the award-winning graphic historyAbina and the Important Men, and has coproduced several prize-winning documentaries.Trevor is also the author of A Primer for Teaching African History, which explores questions about how we should teach the history of Africa in high school and universityclasses.Bridgette Byrd O’Connor holds a DPhil in history from the University of Oxford and has taught Big History, world history, and AP US government and politics for the past 10 years at the high school level. In addition, Bridgette has been a freelance writer and editor for the Big History Project and the Crash Course world history and US history curricula.Era 7 Overview: The Last 100 Years (1040L)Trevor Getz and Bridgette Byrd O’ConnorHow did we get here? How did millions of years of "history" leadto our modern-day world? How did the Paleolithic Age, the Neolithic Age, Iron Age states, the Silk Road, the "dark ages," the Enlightenment, revolutions and the Great Dying all set the stage for the life you and your fellow twenty-first-century humans nowlive? How can we make meaning from this history? How can youmake use of the past to understand who you are today? How can you use it to think about where we are going in the future?One important question we can ask to make meaning from the past is aboutyou. It's also about your relationship to every other human on the planet today. This question is: "Is there a shared human history?"

WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 7-THE GREAT CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCEText Reader6This question applies to all of the eras in this course, but especially to Era 7, which covers the last hundred years or so, up to the present. During this era, the people of the world became far more closely connected than ever before. Where once it was rare for our ancestors to travel more than a few miles from their farms or villages, people today can fly around the worldin less than a day. We can create a video seen around the world in a few minutes, or text each other almost instantly. Where once our ancestors made almost everything they needed themselves, now most of the products we use are made elsewhere. The more complicated ones are produced from materials sourced in over a dozen countries, and then worked on in several other countries before they make their way to us. We humans used to live in communities of 100 people or fewer. We were separated into numeroussmalllanguage groups. But now we have trans-national institutions like the United Nations and the World Health Organization. These institutions have tied us all together over the last 100 years. We are connected as one network, one community, allowing us to hopefully solve problems and explore new opportunities together.But we are also living in an era of great conflict between peoples, and great differences in experiences. Much of the twentieth century seemed like one long, truly global conflict. Vast inequality existed throughout this era (and continues to exist), and people are increasingly seeing globalization as a problem as much as it is a solution. So, have we grown closer together, or further apart?Are we better off?Conflict and inequality are problems that are related to how secure people feel economically, how safe they feel in their community, and how connected they are to each other. So, much of our exploration of this era looks at the question of whether people are becoming wealthier, safer, more secure, and more connected, or if instead, problems and challenges are growing. The evidence we find is mixed.Era 7 begins with the First World War (1914-1918). This conflict was considered unnecessary by many, and it resulted in enormous death and suffering. It was followed by the rise of authoritarianism, of the communist, fascist, and nationalist varieties.Then came the terror of the Second World War (1939-1945) and the genocide known as the Holocaust. Victory for the Allies in that conflict leftthe United States and the Soviet Union as the two world powers. Both quickly faced off in the Cold War (1948-1989), which lasted almost to the end of the century. The end of these global wars left horrendous problems in place. For example, suspicion stillexists between the United States and the Soviet Union (now Russia). Despite decolonization, the Middle East is still torn apart by its many ongoing conflicts.All of these conflicts were tied to great inequality in the production and distribution of goods. A small minority has grown richer than ever, while many suffer. Large regions of the world—especially in Africa, southern Asia, and Latin America—continue to have high poverty rates. These patterns seem to be at least partly the result of long-term historical trends, such as slavery and colonialism. Finally, even within wealthy societies, inequality means that some people have few opportunities.But perhaps the greatest challenge facing humans in the twenty-first century is the growing threat posed by ouroveruse of Earth's resources. As human populations continued to increase over the past century, environmental damage worsened. Larger areas of forests were converted to farmland. At the same time, the use of fossil fuels increased. The result was a dramatic increase in pollution, including the release of billions of tons of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. This pollution has contributed to a dangerous warming of our planet.

WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 7-THE GREAT CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCEText Reader7But era 7 hasalso been a time of great progress. Forexample, there is some evidence that poverty is declining, and that the benefits of broad economic growth are finally being felt by those living in poorer regions. As recently as 1970, most humans lived in so-called "absolute poverty." They did not alwayshave enough food and other resources to survive. Today, perhaps as few as 10 percent of people live in absolute poverty. By many measures, life has improved broadly for humans over the last several decades. Child mortality has dropped faster since 1990 than at any time in human history. More children are in school, and a greater percentage of people can read and write than at any time in history. The rate of deaths by violence has been decreasing for six decades. These rates are probably the lowest they have ever been. But of course, this story is not equally true for everyone, everywhere. Some regions have had greater positive change than others. In a few places, poverty and child mortality rates remain the same or are even growing.Globalization and youThe world you live in and your own life experience are a product of past history. Members of your family may have served in the wars of the twentieth century, or they may have been forced to move because of those wars. You may have a family history influenced and shaped by empires, and by the economic ups and downs of the twentieth century. The jobs your ancestors and parents worked were shaped by many of these same trends. The foods you eat may have been influenced by their migration patterns.Over time, the world has moved toward larger and more deeply connected communities. But in some ways, we have become less connected to each other. Humans used to live in tribes of dozens where parenting and other responsibilities were shared. Now we primarily live in smaller, so-called "nuclear" families. We have moved toward a world in which more wealth and power is available to humans. But many of us have been left behind and have seen little benefit from that growth.There is great value in different cultures pullingtogether. Doing so helps us solve our shared problems. But there is also value in our individual stories, our family histories, and our local cultures. Humanity must figure out how we can all be individuals and a part of our local community, and yet also part of an increasingly interconnected world. How we meet this challenge will help shape our future.Era 7 Overview: The Last 100 Years (940L)Trevor Getz and Bridgette Byrd O’ConnorHow did we get here? How did many thousands of years of "history" set thestage for the life you and your fellow twenty-first-century humans now live? What meaning can you draw from history? How can youmake use of the past to understand who you are today? How can you use it to think about where we are going in the future?One particularly important question to ask is this: "Is there a shared human history?"This last question applies to all of the eras in this course. However, it especially applies to Era 7, which covers the last hundred years or so, up to the present. During this era, the people of the world became far more closely connected than ever before. This process is known as globalization.Once, our ancestors rarely ever traveled more than a few miles from their farms or villages. Today, people can fly around the world in less than a day. We can create a video seen around the world in a few minutes, or text each other almost instantly. Once, our ancestors made almost everything they needed themselves. Today, most of the products we use are made elsewhere. The more complicated ones are produced from

WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 7-THE GREAT CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCEText Reader8materials sourced in over a dozen countries, and then worked on in several other countries before they make their way to us. We humans used to live in communities of 100 people or fewer. We were separated into numeroussmall language groups. But now we have trans-national institutions like the United Nations and the World Health Organization. These institutions have tied us all together over the last 100 years. We are connected as one network, one community, allowing us to solve problems and explore new opportunities together.But we are also living in an era of great conflict between peoples, and great inequality. Much of the twentieth century seemed like one long global conflict. Vast inequality existed throughout this era (and continues to exist). Increasingly, people are seeing globalization as a problem as much as it is a solution. So, have we grown closer together, or further apart?Are we better off?There are many explanations for the levels of conflict and inequality found in a society or globally. However, both problems are related to how secure people feel economically, how safe they feel, and how connected they are to each other. So, much of our exploration of Era 7 looks at two questions: Are people becoming wealthier, safer, more secure, and more connected? Or, are the problems and challenges we face growing? The evidence we find is mixed.Era 7 begins with the First World War (1914-1918). This conflict was considered unnecessary by many, and it resulted in enormous death and suffering. It was followed by the rise of authoritarianism, of the communist, fascist, and nationalist varieties. Then came the terror of the Second World War (1939-1945) and the genocide known as the Holocaust. Victory for the Allies in that conflict left the United States and the Soviet Union as the two world powers. Both quickly faced off in the Cold War (1948-1989), which lasted almost to the end of the century. The end of these global wars left horrendous problems in place. For example, distrust still exists between the United States and the Soviet Union (now Russia). The former colonies of the Middle East are still being torn apart by ongoing conflicts.All of these problems are tied to the great inequality found across the world. A small minority has grown richer than ever, while many suffer. Large regions of the world—especially in Africa, southern Asia, and Latin America—continue to have high poverty rates. These patterns are partly the result of long-term historical trends, such as slaveryand colonialism. Finally, even within wealthy societies, inequality means that some people have few opportunities.But perhaps the greatest challenge facing humans in the twenty-first century is the growing threat posed by our overuse of Earth's resources. As human populations continued to increase over the past century, environmental damage worsened. Larger areas of forests were converted to farmland. At the same time, the use of fossil fuels increased. The result was a huge increase in pollution, including the release of billions of tons of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. This pollution has caused a dangerous warming of our planet.But era 7 hasalso been a time of great progress. For example, there is some evidence that global poverty is declining. As recently as 1970, most humans lived in so-called "absolute poverty." They did not always have enough food and other resources to survive. Today, perhaps as few as 10 percent of people live in absolute poverty. By many measures, life has improved broadly for humans over the last several decades. Child mortality has dropped faster since 1990 than at any time in human history. More children are in school, and a greater percentage of people can read and write than at any time in history. But of course,this story is not

WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 7-THE GREAT CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCEText Reader9equally true for everyone, everywhere. Some regions have had greater positive change than others. In a few places, poverty and child mortality rates remain the same or are even growing.Globalization and youThe world you live in and your own life experience are a product of past history. Members of your family may have served in the wars of the twentieth century, or they may have been forced to move because of those wars. You may have a family history influenced and shaped by empires, and by the economic ups and downs of the twentieth century. The jobs your ancestors and parents worked were shaped by many of these same trends. The foods you eat may have been influenced by their migration patterns.Over time, the world has moved toward larger and more deeply connected communities. But in some ways, we have become less connected to each other. Humans used to live in tribes of dozens where parenting and other responsibilities were shared. Now we primarily live in smaller, so-called "nuclear" families. We have moved toward a world in which more wealth and power is available to humans. But many of us have been left behind and have seen little benefit from that growth.There is great value in different cultures pulling together. Doing so helps ussolve our shared problems. But there is also value in our individual stories, our family histories, and our local cultures. We must figure out how we can all be individuals and a part of our local communities. Yet at the same time, we must also all learn to be a part of an increasingly interconnected world.Era 7 Overview: The Last 100 Years (850L)Trevor Getz and Bridgette Byrd O’ConnorHow did we get here? How did thousands of years of "history" lead to our modern world and the life you live? What meaning can you draw from history? How can the past help you understand who you are today? How can it help you see what the future might bring?Another important question to ask is this: "Is there a shared human history?"This last question applies to all of the eras in this course. However, it especially applies to Era 7, which covers the last hundred years or so, up to the present. During this era, the people of the world became far more closely connected than ever before. This change is known as globalization.Once, our ancestors almost never traveled more than a few miles from their farms or villages. Today, people can fly around the world in less than a day. We can text each other almost instantly. Once, our ancestors made almost everything they neededthemselves. Today, the products we use are made all around the world. We humans used to live in communities of 100 people or fewer. Today, we are linked together in one giant global community. This allows us to solve problems and explore new opportunitiestogether.But we are also living in an era of great conflict between peoples, and great inequality. Much of the twentieth century seemed like one long global conflict. Vast inequality existed during this era, and continues to exist. Increasingly, people see globalization as a problem.So, are we better off, or not?

WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 7-THE GREAT CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCEText Reader10Are we better off?There are many causes of conflict and inequality. However, both problems are related to how much money people can earn, how safe they feel, and how connected they are to eachother. So, much of our examination of Era 7 looks at two questions: Are people becoming wealthier, safer and more connected? Or, are the problems and challenges we face growing? The answers we find are mixed.Era 7 begins with the First World War (1914-1918). This conflict resulted in enormous death and suffering. It was followed by the rise of authoritarianism, as seen in the rule of communist, fascist, and nationalist leaders. Then came the terror of the Second World War (1939-1945) and the genocide known as the Holocaust. After the war, the United States and the Soviet Union became the world's two major powers. Both quickly faced off in the Cold War (1948-1989), which lasted almost to the end of the century. The end of these global wars left horrendous problems in place. For example, the United States and the Soviet Union (now Russia) are still suspicious of each other. The former colonies of the Middle East are still being torn apart by war.All of these problems are tied to the great inequality found across the world. A small number of people have grown richer than ever, while many suffer. Large regions of the world continue to be extremely poor. This is especially true in Africa, southern Asia, and Latin America. All this is partly the result of long-term historical trends, such as slavery and colonialism. Finally, even within rich societies, there is great inequality. Some people have few opportunities.Pollution and global warming areperhaps the greatest challenges we face in the twenty-first century.As human populations increased over the past hundred years, environmental damage worsened. Forests around the world were cut down and turned into farmland. Huge amounts of fossil fuels were burnt for energy. The result was a huge increase in pollution. This has caused a dangerous warming of our planet.But Era 7 hasalso been a time of great progress. As recently as 1970, most humans lived in so-called "absolute poverty." They did not always have enough food to survive. Today, perhaps as few as 10 percent of people live in absolute poverty. By many measures, life has improved greatly for humans over the last several decades. Child mortality has dropped faster since 1990 than at any time in human history. More children are in school, and a greater percentageof people can read and write than at any time in history. But of course, this story is not equally true for everyone, everywhere. Some regions have seen much more improvement than others. In a few places, poverty and child mortality rates remain the same or are even growing.Globalization and youThe world you live in and your own life experience are a product of past history. Members of your family may have served in the wars of the twentieth century, or they may have been forced to move because of those wars. You may have a family history influenced and shaped by empires, and by the economic ups and downs of the twentieth century. The jobs your ancestors and parents worked were shaped by many of these same trends. The foods you eat may have been influenced by their migration patterns.Over time, the world has moved toward larger and more deeply connected communities. But in some ways, we have become less connected to each other. Humans used to live in tribes of dozens where parenting and other responsibilities were shared. Now we primarily live in smaller, so-called "nuclear" families. We have moved toward a world in which more wealth and comfort is being created. But many of us have been left behind and have seen little benefit from that growth.

WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 7-THE GREAT CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCEText Reader11There is great value in different cultures pulling together. Doing so helps us solve our shared problems. But there is also value in our personal stories, our family histories, and our local cultures. We must figure out how we can all be individuals and a part of our local communities. Yet at the same time, we must also all learn to be a part of an increasingly interconnected world.Era 7 Overview: The Last 100 Years (710L)Trevor Getz and Bridgette Byrd O’ConnorHow did thousands of years of "history" lead to our modern world and the life you live? What meaning can you draw from history? How can the past help you understand who you are today? How can it help you see what the future might bring?Here's another important question: "Is there a shared human history?"This last question applies to all of the eras in this course. However, it especially applies to Era 7. This era stretches from 1914 to the present. During this era, the people of the world became far more closely connected than ever before. This change is known as globalization.Once, our ancestors almost never traveled more than a few miles from their farms or villages. Today, people can fly around the world in less than a day. We can text each other almost instantly, no matter how far apart we are. Once, ourancestors made almost everything they needed themselves. Today, the products we use are made all around the world. We humans used to live in communities of 100 people or fewer. Today, we are linked together in one giant global community. This allows us tosolve problems and explore new opportunities together.But we are also living in an era of great conflict between peoples. Much of the twentieth century seemed like one long global war. Huge inequality also existed during this era. Today, it continues to exist. Increasingly, people see globalization as a problem.So, are we better off today than we were in the past, or not?Are we better off?There are many causes of conflict and inequality. However, both problems are related to how rich or poor people are, how safe they feel, and how connected they are to each other. So, as we study Era 7, we ask two big questions: Are people becoming wealthier, safer and more connected? Or, are the problems we face growing? The answers we find are mixed.Era 7 begins with the First World War (1914-1918). This conflict resulted in enormous death and suffering. Then came the Second World War (1939-1945) and the genocide known as the Holocaust. After the war, the United States and the Soviet Union became the world's two major powers. Both quickly faced off in the Cold War (1948-1989). That conflict lasted almost to the end of the century.The end of these global wars left horrendous problems in place. For example, the United States and the Soviet Union (now Russia) still don't trust each other. The former colonies of the Middle East are still being torn apart by war. Many other former colonies are suffering as well.

WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 7-THE GREAT CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCEText Reader12All of these problems are tied to the great inequality found across the world. A small number of people have grown richer than ever, while many suffer. Large regions of the world continue to be very poor. This is especially true in Africa, southern Asia, and Latin America. All this is partly the result of long-term historical trends, such as slavery and colonialism.Even within rich societies, there is great inequality. Some people have few opportunities.Pollution and global warming areperhaps the greatest challenges we now face. As human populations grew quickly over the past hundred years, environmentaldamage worsened. Forests around the world were cut down. Huge amounts of fossil fuels were burned for energy. The result was a huge rise in pollution. This has caused a dangerous warming of our planet.But era 7 hasalso been a time of great progress. As recently as 1970, most humans lived in so-called "absolute poverty." They did not always have enough food to survive. Today, perhaps as few as 10 percent of people live in absolute poverty. In many ways, life has improved greatly for many people. Fewer children are dying than at any time in human history. More children are in school. More people can read and write than ever before. But of course, this story is not equally true for everyone. And it is not equally true everywhere. Some regions have seen much more improvement than others. In a few places, poverty remains the same or is even growing.Globalization and youOver time, the world has moved toward larger and more deeply connected communities. But in some ways, we have become less connected to each other. Humans used to live in tribes of dozens. Parenting and other responsibilities were shared. Now we mostly live in smaller, so-called "nuclear" families. Today, large numbers of people live comfortable lives. But many others have been left behind.The countries of the world are becoming more and more closely linked together. Increasingly, we are all part of one global system. There is a good side to this. Our close connections help us solve our common problems. But at the same time, local cultures are very important. It would be a shame to lose them. We must figure out how we can do two things at once. We should all remain tied to our local communities. Yet at the same time, we must also learn to be a part of an increasingly interconnected world.What Caused the First World War?The First World War feels almost like a murder mystery, with many suspected causes, and complex motives. Millions of lives were lost in this confusing conflict that gripped the world.What Caused the First World War? (1080L)TrevorGetzWorld War why?The First World War lasted more than four years and killed between 15 and 19 million people around the planet. Each death was a human being, whether a soldier in the fight or a civilian caught up in the chaos of this violent global conflict. The war also devastated the global economy and contributed to massive disease outbreaks that killed millions more people. So it is well worth asking: why did this war happen?

WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 7-THE GREAT CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCEText Reader13Historians have generally taken three approaches to explaining the causes of the First World War. The first is specific, neatly pointing to a single event—the assassination of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914. The second looks for the deeper, underlying causes of the conflict by closely studying global trends that had been building over many years. The third suggests that the world just sort of fell into war, almost by mistake, through mismanagement of the crisis caused by Archduke Ferdinand's assassination. Let's look at each of these theories in turn, and ask whether the causes of this deadly worldwide conflict were simple, complicated, or accidental.One shot: The assassination of Archduke Franz FerdinandYou probably have already learned a bit about the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. But its importance may not be obvious. This empire, after all, is gone. It was one of the victims of the First World War, defeated and torn apart by the end of the conflict. But in 1914, the Habsburg family had ruled this empire for almost four centuries. It was a huge, multi-ethnic empire located in the middle of Europe. Franz Ferdinand's uncle, the emperor, ruled over its many ethnic communities with difficulty. First of all, nationalism was pushing many of them to pursue independence. It didn't help that Russia and the Habsburg's other rivals were cheering them on in both subtle and not-so-subtle ways. The Serbs, one of those ethnic groups, had their own country of Serbia having achieved independence from the Ottoman Empire. But many Serbs still lived in the Habsburg province of Bosnia. Serbian nationalists, both in Serbia and Bosnia, plotted throughout the early twentieth century to get the Habsburgs out of Bosnia. Russia was generally supportive of these plots. The successful plot to assassinate Franz Ferdinand on 28 June 1914 was part of a bigger plan. The plotters hoped that by killing Franz Ferdinand, they would provoke the Austro-Hungarian Empire to declare war on Serbia. That is when their supportive friend Russia, they hoped, would leap to the defense of Serbia, defeat the Habsburg armies, and help the Bosnian Serbs win their independence.To some degree, the plotters got their wish. Within two days of the assassination, the Austro-Hungarian Empire had put a list of demands before the Serbians. Known as the July Ultimatum, these unreasonable requirements would have violated Serbian national sovereignty1. Serbia said thanks but no thanks, then turned to Russia for support. The Russians agreed to defend Serbia if it were invaded. Diplomatic relations between Serbia and the empire were broken off, and within a month, much of the world was at war.Deeper trends: Help me help you help meThe assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand was the immediate cause of a war between two great powers—Russia and the Habsburg Austro-Hungarian Empire. But why and how did this conflict become a world war? Some historians argue that the answer to this question lies in deeper trends—and the good news is we have already introduced many of those trends in this course.Let's start with the alliance system. These were "communities" of nations, if you will, that all pledged to support each other. After the devastation of the Napoleonic wars in the early nineteenth century, the large European powers wanted to avoid the devastation of big wars on the European continent. The result was a 1Yes, these terms can get confusing. Nationalism was introduced to you as the idea that a state should govern itself, and not have some empire as its boss. But at some point, that feeling that you should get to govern yourself can turn into the idea that you are better than other nations, and becomes a kind of extreme patriotism. We call that nationalism as well. As we will see, nationalism is a pretty flexible thing, and it can be used for lots of different purposes.

WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 7-THE GREAT CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCEText Reader14system of alliances that was supposed to keep a balance of power in Europe. It pitted two great alliances against each other. One was the Triple Entente, led by Russia and France, with Great Britain joining several years before the war. The other was the Triple Alliance, which included Austro-Hungary, Germany and Italy, and later the Ottoman Empire, eventually becoming known as the Central Powers. These opposing alliances pretty much guaranteed that if Russia and Austro-Hungary went to war, they could drag in their allies, making the conflict much larger than the two enemies that started it.Nationalism—which had been growing rapidly in many areas of the world—added fuel to the war. Of course, Serbian nationalism played a big part in the assassination of Franz Ferdinand. But with each of the big powers, nationalism also promoted the idea that national pride and glory were good enough reasons to go to war. For example, France hoped that by joining Russia in its war, they could defeat their German rivals and reclaim territory—and pride—they had lost to Germany in a previous war.The concept of national sovereignty was key in this era, and like nationalism it widened the war even further. Britain, for example, only joined the fight after German troops had invaded neutral Belgium on their way into France. The British argument was that they had to defend Belgian sovereignty. Russia, similarly, entered the war technically in defense ofSerbian sovereignty.Imperialism was another important trend that helped expand and accelerate the war. Many of the warring countries had imperial objectives in mind when they went to war. Their motives were partly about gaining strategic advantage. Russia hoped to gain control of the Straits of Dardanelles from the Ottoman Empire, giving their fleet access to the Mediterranean Sea for the first time ever. Britain and France wanted control over parts of the Ottoman Empire. Japan joined the war on the side of the Entente (Britain, France, and Russia) because they hoped to seize some German colonies in the Pacific Ocean. This imperialism had an economic motive as well. Empires were looking to seize important trade routes and raw materials from their opponentsas well as to gain strategic advantages.The big powers were so experienced at building empires that they were convinced war would be short and easy. They had used their military superiority in Africa and Asia often enough, and always won. Why should thisnew imperialist adventure be any different? These major European powers also believed themselves superior to the Pacific, Asian, and African people they had conquered. It was not a big stretch to claim superiority over other Europeans as well.Finally, the new technologies provided by industrialization meant that war preparations, once begun, made actual conflict inevitable. Everybody believed that with the new weapons and transportation available, the advantage would go to the first country that could mobilize (get their troops together and moving to their borders). Railroads could now transport large numbers of troops, weapons, and equipment to the borders quickly, but only along carefully prepared timetables. Once begun, they could not be halted without giving the enemy an advantage. So when Austro-Hungary began to mobilize against Serbia, Russia and France had to hurry up and put their plans in motion. That meant Germany had to move quickly as well. All of this meant that once one power beganmoving troops or military machinery then the others would quickly follow. Then, there would be no going back and the war would begin. Yet, everyone also thought that the war would be over very quickly, but boy were they wrong!Accidental war: Missed the memo, hit the targetThe stumbling pathway to war creates an image of one state after another seemingly helpless or unwilling to stop a conflict they could see coming. This leads us to another theory about why the First World War

WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 7-THE GREAT CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCEText Reader15happened. The world at thistime didn't have really sophisticated diplomatic systems. Communication between diplomats and their governments was slow and limited, and there had been a time when that was just fine. But technological change had outpaced the way that people thought about international relations. With the increased speed of mobilization, there was no time for old-school diplomacy. Throughout the summer of 1914, as diplomats and governments thought long and hard about the impact of an assassination, they missed all kinds of opportunities to slow down the mobilization of troops. They simply couldn't keep up with the pace of events. Some historians argue that this inadequacy, rather than the deep underlying trends or even the assassination itself, was most responsible for thewar. But to other historians, this kind of explanation seems insufficient. They argue that better diplomacy would only have delayed the inevitable. All these big trends would have eventually forced a war. What do you think?Author BioTrevor Getz is a professor of African and world history at San Francisco State University. He has been the author or editor of 11 books, including the award-winning graphic history Abina and the Important Men, and has coproduced several prize-winning documentaries.Trevor is also the author of A Primer for Teaching African History, which explores questions about how we should teach the history of Africa in high school and university classes.What Caused the First World War? (950L)Trevor GetzWorld War why?The First World War lasted more than four years and killed between 15 and 19 million people. The war also devastated the global economy and contributed to massive disease outbreaks that killed millions more people. So why did this war happen?Historians have three explanations for what caused the First World War. The first points to a specific event: the assassination of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Sarajevo on June 28, 1914. The second explanation looks at global trends that had been building over manyyears before the war. The third explanation suggests that the war almost started by mistake. Leaders did not manage the aftermath of Archduke Ferdinand's assassination well. Let's look at each of these theories, and ask whether the causes of this deadly worldwide conflict were simple, complicated, or accidental.One shot: The assassination of Archduke Franz FerdinandYou probably have learned a bit about the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. However, the importance of the event may not be obvious.Ferdinand was a member of the Habsburg family, who ruled Europe's Austro-Hungarian Empire for nearly 400 years before the war broke out. Located in the middle of Europe, this empire was huge and multi-ethnic, but by the end of the war, it was torn apart. Franz Ferdinand's uncle was the emperor, and he struggled to rule the empire's different ethnic communities. First of all, nationalism pushed these groups to pursue independence. One group was the Serbs, who had already created their own country of Serbia after gaining independence from the Ottoman Empire. However, many Serbs still lived in the Habsburg region of Bosnia. Serbian nationalists began plotting to get the Habsburgs out of Bosnia. It didn't help that the Habsburg's rival, Russia, was supporting the Serbs. However, the Serbs had a bigger plan when they plotted to kill Franz Ferdinand on June 28, 1914. They hoped the Austro-Hungarian Empire would declare war on them for assassinating Franz Ferdinand. Then, Russia would step in to help them defeat the Habsburgs and give Bosnian Serbs their independence.

WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 7-THE GREAT CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCEText Reader16Within two days of the assassination, the Austro-Hungarian Empire had put a list of demands before the Serbians called the July Ultimatum. These unreasonable requirements would have violated Serbia's rights as an independent nation. Serbia said no thanks and turned to Russia, who agreed to support Serbia if it were attacked. Within a month, much of the world was at war.Deeper trends: Help me help you help meThe assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand was the immediate cause of a war between Russia and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. But why and how did this conflict become a world war? Some historians argue that the answer lies in deeper trends. The good news is we have already introduced many of thosetrends in this course.Let's start with the alliance system. These were "communities" of nations that pledged to support each other. After the devastation of the Napoleonic wars in the early nineteenth century, the large European powers made alliances to keep a balance of power in Europe and avoid future wars. Two great alliances were pitted against each other. Russia, France, and Great Britain made up the Triple Entente. Austro-Hungary, Germany, Italy and eventually the Ottoman Empire formed the Triple Alliance. It was later called the Central Powers. These opposing alliances pretty much guaranteed that if Russia and Austro-Hungary went to war, they could drag in their allies and make the conflict even bigger. Growing nationalism also added fuel to the war. Nationalism promoted the idea that national pride was a good enough reason to go to war. For example, France joined the war in the hopes of regaining territory that they had previously lost to Germany. National sovereignty2also widened the war. Sovereignty refers to a nation's ability to rule itself. Britain, for example, joined the war to protect Belgian sovereignty after German troops invaded Belgium on their way to France.Imperialism was another trend that helped expand the war. Many countries joined the war in the hopes of gaining territory that would benefit them. Britain and France wanted control over parts of the Ottoman Empire. Japan, for example, supported the Triple Entente in hopes of seizing German colonies in the Pacific Ocean. This imperialism had an economic motive as well. Empires were looking to seize important trade routes and raw materials from their opponents.The big powers were convinced war would be short and easy. They had successfully used their military power in Africa and Asia, so why would Europe be any different? They considered themselves superior to people from Africa and Asia, so it was easy to believe they were superior to other Europeans. Finally, industrialization had brought new technologies, like weapons and transportation. This meant that once war preparations began, conflict was unavoidable. Everybody believed that the first country to get their troops moving would have an advantage. Railroads could now transport large numbers of troops and materials. All of this meant that when Austro-Hungary began to mobilize troops against Serbia, all of the 2Yes, these terms can get confusing. Nationalism was introduced to you as the idea that a state should govern itself, and not have some empire as its boss. But at some point, that feeling that you should get to govern yourself can turn into the idea that you are better than other nations, and becomes a kind of extreme patriotism. We call that nationalism as well. As we will see, nationalism is a pretty flexible thing, and it can be used for lots of different purposes.

WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 7-THE GREAT CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCEText Reader17other powers also had to start sending troops. They did not want other powers to have an advantage. Everyone thought that the war would be over very quickly, but boy were they wrong!Accidental war: Missed the memo, hit the targetIt may seem like there were many states who saw the war coming, but did not try to stop it. This leads us to another theory about why the First World War happened. The world at this time didn't havereally strong diplomatic systems. Diplomats represent their country's interests in other nations. Communication between diplomats and governments had been slow and limited. Unfortunately, technology outpaced the way people thought about international relations. When troops began mobilizing faster than before, diplomats could no longer keep up with the pace of events. They missed many opportunities to slow down the mobilization of troops. Some historians argue that governments' slow response was the real reason for the war. Other historians argue the war would have happened anyway. All these big trends would have eventually forced a war. What do you think?What Caused the First World War? (840L)Trevor GetzWorld War why?The First World War lasted more than four years and killed between 15 and 19 million people. The war also devastated the global economy. It contributed to outbreaks of disease that killed millions more people. So why did this war happen?Historians have three explanations for what causedthe First World War. The first is the assassination of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Sarajevo. The second reason is that global trends had been building over many years before the war. The third suggests that the war almost started by mistake. Leaders did not manage the consequences of Archduke Ferdinand's assassination well. Let's look at each of these ideas, and ask whether the causes of this deadly conflict were simple, complicated, or accidental.One shot: The assassination of Archduke Franz FerdinandIt may not be obvious why the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand was important. Ferdinand was a member of the Habsburg family, who had ruled Europe's Austro-Hungarian Empire for nearly 400 years. This large empire was in the center of Europe and had a multi-ethnic population. Franz Ferdinand's uncle was the emperor. He struggled to rule the empire's different ethnic communities. Nationalism had pushed these communities to pursue independence from the empire. One such group was the Serbs. They had already created their own country of Serbia after gaining independence from the Ottoman Empire. However, many Serbs still lived in the Habsburg region of Bosnia. Serbian nationalists began plotting to get the Habsburgs out of Bosnia. It didn't help that theHabsburg's rival, Russia, supported the Serbs. The Serbs plan was to kill Franz Ferdinand in the hopes that the Austro-Hungarian Empire would declare war on them. Then, Russia would help them win the war and gain independence for the Bosnian Serbs.Archduke Franz Ferdinand was killed on June 28, 1914. Two days after the assassination, the Austro-Hungarian Empire gave the Serbs a list of demands called the July Ultimatum. The Serbs rejected the demands, which would have challenged their independence. They then turned to Russia for support. Within a month, much of the world was at war.

WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 7-THE GREAT CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCEText Reader18Deeper trends: Help me help you help meThe assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand was the immediate cause of a war between Russia and Austro-Hungarian Empire. But why and how did this conflict become a world war? Some historians argue that the answer lies in deeper trends. The good news is we have already introduced many of those trends in this course.Let's start with the alliance system. These were "communities" of nationsthat supported each other. The Napoleonic wars in the early 1800s devastated Europe. Large European powers believed that alliances would create a balance of power in Europe. This would prevent future wars. Two great alliances were pitted against each other. Russia, France, and Great Britain made up the Triple Entente. Austro-Hungary, Germany, Italy and the Ottoman Empire formed the Triple Alliance, later called the Central Powers. These opposing alliances pretty much guaranteed that if Russia and Austro-Hungary went to war, their allies would join and make the conflict even bigger. Growing nationalism also added fuel to the war. Nationalism promoted the idea that national pride was a good enough reason to go to war. For example, France joined the war in the hopes of regaining territory that it had lost to Germany. National sovereignty3also widened the war. Sovereignty refers to a nation's ability to rule itself. Britain is one example. They joined the war to protect Belgian sovereignty after German troops had invaded Belgium on their way to France. Imperialism was another trend that helped expand the war. Many countries joined the war to gain territory. Britain and France wanted parts of the Ottoman Empire. Japan supported the Triple Entente and hoped to take German colonies in the Pacific Ocean. Imperialism had an economic motive as well. Empires were looking to seize important trade routes and raw materials from their opponents.The big powers were convinced war would be short and easy. They had successfully used their military power in Africa and Asia, so why would Europe be any different? They considered themselves superior to people from Africa and Asia, too. It was easy to believe they were also superior to other Europeans. Finally, industrialization brought new technologies, like weapons and transportation. Everybody believed that the first country to get their troops moving would have an advantage. Railroads could now quickly move large numbers of troops and materials. Once Austro-Hungary sent troops to Serbia, all the other powers had to start sending troops, too. They did not want other powers to have an advantage. Everyone thought that the war would be over very quickly. Unfortunately, everyone was wrong.Accidental war: Missed the memo, hit thetargetIt may seem like many states saw the war coming, but did nothing to stop it. This leads us to another idea about why the First World War happened. Diplomats represent their country's interests in other nations. Communication between diplomats and governments was slow and limited back then. Technology quickly outpaced the way people thought about international relations. As troops began moving faster than before, 3Yes, these terms can get confusing. Nationalism was introduced as the idea that a state should governitself, and not have some empire as its boss. But at some point, that feeling that you should get to govern yourself can turn into the idea that you are better than other nations. This becomes a form of extreme patriotism. We call that nationalism as well. As we will see, nationalism is a pretty changeable thing, and it can be used for different purposes.

WORLD HISTORY PROJECT / ERA 7-THE GREAT CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCEText Reader19diplomats could not keep up with the pace of events. They missed many opportunities to slow down the mobilization of troops. Some historians argue that this slow response was the real reason for the war. Other historians argue that other big trends would have led to war anyway. What do you think?What Caused the First World War? (720L)TrevorGetzWorld War why?The First World War lasted more than four years, killing between 15 and 19 million people. The war devastated the global economy. It also led to outbreaks of disease that killed millions more people. Why did this war happen?Historianshave three explanations for what caused the First World War. The first is the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The second is that a rise in global trends, such as alliances, caused the war. The third suggests that the war almost started by accident. Leaders did not handle the consequences of Archduke Ferdinand's assassination well. Let's look at each of these ideas. We will see if the causes of this deadly conflict were simple, complicated, or accidental.One shot: The assassination of Archduke Franz FerdinandFerdinand was a member of the Habsburg family. The Habsburgs ruled the Austro-Hungarian Empire for nearly 400 years. This large empire was in the center of Europe. The population was multi-ethnic, meaning there were many distinct ethnic groups.Franz Ferdinand's uncle was the emperor of Austria-Hungary. He struggled to rule the empire's different ethnic communities. Nationalism pushed these communities to pursue independence from the empire. One group was the Serbs. Other Serbs gained independence from the Ottoman Empire and formed the country of Serbia. However, many Serbs still lived in the Habsburg region of Bosnia, under the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Serbian nationalists wanted to push the Habsburgs out of Bosnia. Russia, the Habsburgs' rival, supported the Serbs. The Serbs' planned to kill Franz Ferdinand. Then, they hoped, Austria-Hungary would declare war on the Serbs. Russia would come to their aid and help win the war. After this, the Bosnian Serbs could gain independence.Archduke Franz Ferdinand was killed on June 28, 1914. Two days later, the Austro-Hungarian Empire gave the Serbs a list of demands. It was called the July Ultimatum. The Serbs thought the demands would take away their independence. They rejected the demands and turned to Russia for help. Within a month, much of the world was at war. Deeper trends: Help me help you help meThe assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand was the immediate cause of a war between Russia and Austro-Hungarian Empire. But how did this conflict become a world war? Some historians argue that the answer lies in deeper trends. The good news is we have already introduced many of those trends in this course.

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